LIBRARY 

Of    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

ClMS 


STUDIES  IN 

PEDAGOGY 


REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


BY 

GEO.  W.  NEET, 

PROFESSOR    OF  PEDAGOGY  IN    THE 
VALPARAISO  COLLEGE. 


VALPARAISO,    INDIANA 

M.  E.  BOGARTE,  PUBLISHER, 
1903. 


COPYRIGHTED  1903 
BY  QEO.   W.   NEET. 


PREFACE. 

It  is  fully  appreciated  that  there  are  many  books 
written  during  the  present  times  for  which  there  not 
only  is  no  demand,  but  for  which  there  is  no  excuse- 
The  present  little  volume  is  not  born  of  any  desire  to 
produce  a  book  on  pedagogy  better  than  any  yet  writ- 
ten. It  is,  however,  prompted  by  a  desire  to  choose 
from  the  field  of  pedagogical  science  material  well 
adapted  to  a  special  class  of  students,  with  which  the 
writer  has  to  deal  in  his  daily  teaching. 

The  field  of  pedagogy  is  so  large  that  material 
must  be  selected  from  it  for  those  students  who  are 
just  beginning  the  study  of  pedagogy.  So  it  has  been 
the  aim  in  this  little  volume  to  select  from  this  broad 
field  and  organize  such  material  as  is  best  adapted  to 
students  beginning  this  line  of  work.  At  the  same 
time  material  has  been  selected  whose  study,  it  is 
believed,  will  be  of  substantial  worth  to  teachers  in 
giving  them  an  insight  into  the  nature  of  the  teach- 
er's profession  as  well  as  knowledge  valuable  for 
guidance  in  teaching.  While  simplicity  has  been 
aimed  at  as  much  as  possible,  no  effort  has  been 
made  to  avoid  the  most  fundamental  problems  of 
pedagogy. 


117481 


IV  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

This  book  is  prepared  for  the  special  purpose  of 
use  as  a  text-book  in  my  own  classes.  Much  which 
is  the  result  of  the  most  recent  investigations  along 
pedagogical  lines  is  here  arranged  in  a  teachable  and 
convenient  form.  Thus  the  study  is  brought  up  to 
date. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  show  where  the  pres- 
ent studies  articulate  with  psychology,  child-study 
and  methods.  G.  W.  N. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER.  PAGE, 

Introduction  9. 

I.        The  School  13. 

II.  •  The  Purpose  of  the  School  25. 

III.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child  -       38. 

IV.  The  Mental  Nature  of  the  Child  63. 

V.  The  Mental  Nature  of  the  Child  84. 

VI.  The  School  Curriculum     -  122. 

VII.  The  Teacher      -  148. 

VIII.  The  Management  of  the  School    -  176 

IX.  The  Process  in  the  Teaching  Act, — 

Method    208. 

X.  The  Recitation  -  -     231. 
Index        ...                  -  245. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Pedagogy. — This  term  is  sometimes  thought  to 
name  some  particular  school  subject,  the  study  of 
which  will  enable  those  who  wish  to  teach  school  to> 
do  their  work  better  than  they  could  do  it  without 
such  study.  It  is  thought  by  some  who  have  not 
been  special  students  of  it  to  name  a  subject  as 
definite,  with  regard  to  the  truth  it  teaches,  as- 
grammar,  geometry,  or  physiology.  Such,  however, 
is  a  wrong  notion  of  the  meaning  of  the  term,  peda- 
gogy, as  well  as  a  wrong  idea  of  the  nature  of  the 
subject,  pedagogy.  Pedagogy  is  a  term  which  names 
a  group  of  subjects  that  have  to  do  with  both  the 
science  and  art  of  education,  and  is  not  correctly  to> 
be  thought  as  naming  any  one  particular  subject. 

The  term,  pedagogy,  is  from  the  Latin  term,  peed- 
agogus,  which  means  a  boy-leader  or  a  child-leader. 
Thus  from  its  literal  meaning  pedagogy  should  be 
something  which  has  to  do  with  leading  children  from 
a  condition  in  which  their  unpreparedness  for  living 
is  the  greatest  to  one  in  which  they  live  intensive  and 
fruitful  lives.  And  this  is  the  correct  use  of  the  term, 
for  it  indicates  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Used  iix 
this  sense  pedagogy  names  a  group  of  subjects  which 
are  called  professional  subjects.  That  is  to  say,  they 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

are  subjects  which  the  teacher  should  study  with  the 
special  view  of  becoming  more  skillful  in  the  art  of 
teaching.  Pedagogy  thus  embraces  the  group  of 
professional  subjects,  psychology,  child-study,  or  paid- 
ology,  methods,  history  of  education,  and  philosophy  of 
education. 

Guyau,  a  French  educational  writer  of  note  de- 
fines pedagogy  as  follows:  * 'Pedagogy  might  be 
defined  as  the  art  of  adapting  new  generations  to 
those  conditions  of  life  which  are  the  most  intensive 
and  fruitful  for  the  individual  and  the  species." 
This  definition  emphasizes  the  art  side  of  pedagogy, 
but  it  also  has  an  important  science  aspect. 

It  thus  appears  that  two  views  of  pedagogy  may 
be  found  in  the  minds  of  teachers,  as  follows: 

1.  The  view  that  pedagogy  is  a  definite  subject, 
such  as  history,  etc.    This  view  is  not  the  correct 
one. 

2.  The  view  that  pedagogy  is  a  group  of  sub- 
jects— the  professional  subjects  for  the  teacher. 

Paraphrasing  Guyau 's  definition  and  adding  a 
little  to  it,  we  have  the  following  definition  for  peda- 
gogy: Pedagogy  is  the  science  and  the  art  of  adapting 
new  generations  to  those  conditions  of  life  most  intensive 
and  fruitful  to  tlie  individual  and  the  race. 

It  will  thus  appear  that  the  field  of  study  in 
pedagogy  which  offers  itself  to  teachers  is  a  broad 
one,  and  one  from  which  material  especially  suited 
must  be  chosen.  It  further  appears  that  to  become 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

to  any  great  extent  proficient  in  the  pursuit  of  peda- 
gogy will  require  considerable  time.  Educational 
ideas  have  grown  till  it  is  no  longer  believed  that  one 
can  become  proficient  in  pedagogy  by  studying  it  for 
one  or  two  school  terms.  This  becomes  evident 
when  one  thinks  that  to  know  pedagogy  to  any  great 
extent  is  to  know  psychology,  child-study,  methodol- 
ogy, history  of  education,  and  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE      SCHOOL. 

The  Beginning  Point. — Prom  the  teacher's  point 
of  view  all  study  of  pedagogy  centers  around  and  is 
connected  with  the  school.  The  term,  pedagogy,  is 
so  closely  connected  with  the  school,  and  they  have 
been  associated  together  to  such  an  extent  that  this 
term  always  suggests  the  school  in  some  of  its 
various  aspects.  For  this  reason  pedagogy  has 
come  to  be  regarded  a  strictly  professional  line  of 
work,  and  a  more  or  less  extended  study  of  it  is  the 
teacher's  distinctly  prof essional  preparation.  So,  as 
a  starting  place  in  the  study  of  pedagogy,  it  seems 
eminently  fitting  to  begin  with  the  study  of  the 
school  as  a  whole,  since  it  is  the  institution  in  which 
the  learner  and  the  teacher  meet  in  the  educating 
process. 

Tlie  Nature  of  the  School. — Among  the  ancients 
the  school  was  a  place  of  leisure,  but  it  can  scarcely 
be  called  such  now.  In  its  development  it  has  be- 
come one  of  the  fundamental  organizations  of  society. 
The  school  is  thus  an  organization,  but  it  gives  little 
or  no  help  to  know  this  unless  the  idea  of  an  organi- 
zation is  well  understood. 


14  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

The  study  of  the  human  body  as  a  type  of  an 
organization  will  reveal  pretty  well  the  thought 
sought  for  here.  A  somewhat  careful  study  will 
show  that  the  following  points  are  to  be  found  in  the 
human  body  as  an  example  of  an  organization: 

1.  A  complex  whole. 

2.  Individual  parts. 

3.  The   harmonious    working    relation   of    the 
parts. 

4.  A  common  purpose  for  which  all  the  parts 
work. 

5.  Self -activity    and     self -adjustment    of    the 
whole  and  the  parts. 

The  body  as  one  thing  is  a  complex  whole,  since 
it  may  be  analyzed  into  parts  some  of  which  are  of 
more  importance  than  others.  The  individual  parts 
in  this  case  are  the  organs  of  the  body — the  hands, 
the  feet,  the  skin,  the  heart,  the  stomach,  etc.  They 
are  individual  parts  because  each  one  has  some 
marks  about  it  which  distinguish  it  from  everything 
else.  All  these  organs  work  so  as  to  help  onean- 
other.  Thus  the  hands  help  to  care  for  the  feet;  the 
feet  help  to  carry  the  hands  from  place  to  place; 
the  feet  and  hands  help  to  secure  food  to  nourish  the 
skin,  heart,  and  stomach  as  well  as  themselves;  the 
stomach  helps  to  digest  the  food,  and  the  heart  pumps 
the  blood  enriched  by  the  digested  food  to  all  parts  of 
the  body.  All  these  parts  do  their  work  in  such  a 
way  that,  while  each  one  does  its  own  particular 


THE  SCHOOL.  15 

work  well,  it  in  no  way  hinders  any  other  part  but 
also  facilitates  its  work.  If  any  part  should  work 
against  another  for  a  time,  the  organization  would  be- 
come impaired;  if  continued,  the  organization  would 
be  destroyed  by  breaking  down  the  unity  of  its  parts. 
The  common  end  for  which  all  the  parts  here  work  is 
the  maintenance  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  which  is  also 
the  maintenance  of  the  life  of  each  part.  The  human 
body  is  self-adjusting  in  that,  when  out  of  order,  it 
tends  to  adjust  itself,  and  in  most  cases  actually  does 
so.  It  is  self-active  in  that  it  has  the  power  of 
originating  its  own  activities — of  causing  itself  to 
act.  The  analysis  of  the  human  body  as  an  example 
of  an  organization  reveals  the  essential  ideas  of  any 
organization  as  we  wish  in  our  work  to  think  it. 

Then,  when  we  say  the  school  is  an  organization, 
we  say  it  is  a  collection  of  individual  parts,  self-ad- 
justing and  self-acting,  working  harmoniously  to- 
gether for  one  common  purpose.  Thus  the  pupils, 
the  teacher,  the  school  curriculum,  the  school 
officers,  the  patrons,  etc.,  are  the  individual  parts;  and 
the  common  purpose  toward  which  they  are  harmo- 
niously working  is  the  education  of  the  learner 
physically,  intellectually,  aesthetically,  socially,  morally, 
and  religiously. 

The  school,  the  church,  the  family,  the  state,  and 
business  society  are  organizations  which  are  called  the 
institutions  of  civilized  life.  These  five  institutions 
are  the  lines  along  which  civilization  has  grown. 


16  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

A  further  study  of  the  institution,  the  school, 
leads  into  a  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  institu- 
tions, and  particularly  the  origin  of  the  school. 

Origin  of  the  School. — The  school  had  its  origin  in 
the  differentiation  of  institutions.  But  this  statement 
gives  no  help  unless  the  meaning  of  differentiation  is 
well  understood.  Differentiation  has  been  called  the 
law  of  all  progress.  That  is  to  say,  progress  con- 
sists in  the  division  of  structure  or  of  labor  or  of 
both,  and  when  there  is  no  differentiation  of  these 
there  is  no  progress. 

Differentiation  may  be  defined  as  a  differencing, 
or  division,  of  structure  or  labor  to  the  end  of  more 
efficient  work. 

Illustration. — The  lowest  forms  of  life  are  small 
animals  and  plants  each  consisting  of  but  one  small 
cell  of  protoplasm  which  does  in  a  way  the  work  that 
all  the  organs  of  higher  living  forms  do  for  them. 
Thus  this  one  cell  performs  all  the  functions  of  di- 
gestion, circulation,  assimilation,  muscular  action, 
etc.,  that  are  performed  by  the  organs  of  higher 
forms  of  life.  In  these  little  living  beings  there  is 
almost  no  differentiation  of  structure  or  function. 
But  a  little  higher  form  of  plant  or  animal  life  has 
many  cells,  some  rudimentary  digestive  organs, 
and  circulatory  organs;  and  also  rudimentary 
nervous,  muscular,  and  supporting  systems.  The 
higher  up  in  the  scale  of  plant  or  animal  life  the 
being  is,  the  more  definite  are  the  separate  organs, 


THE  SCHOOL.  17 

and  the  more  is  their  labor  divided.  For  instance 
the  robin  or  the  geranium  each  has  a  definite  set  of 
organs  for  the  performance  of  a  definite  set  of 
functions.  That  is  to  say,  they  have  a  high  degree 
of  differentiation,  while  the  one  celled  forms  have 
none  or  nearly  none.  This  means  progress;  for  when 
an  organ  has  but  one  kind  of  work  to  do,  it  can  do 
that  better  than  it  can  do  many  kinds  of  work.  This 
is  true  because  there  is  more  time  and  energy  to  be 
spent  upon  this  particular  work. 

Differentiation  of  Institutions. — There  was  a  time 
in  primitive  society  during  the  childhood  of  the  race 
when  only  one  of  these  fundamental  institutions  of 
civilization  was  in  existence.  This  institution  was 
the  family.  It  then  had  much  work  to  do.  It  had  to 
protect  the  children  from  enemies,  both  wild  beasts 
and  men,  to  furnish  food,  clothing  and  shelter.  It 
had  to  educate  the  children  in  so  far  as  they  were 
educated;  to  furnish  religious  services,  and  provide 
means  of  enjoyment  for  leisure  hours.  With  these 
manifold  duties  to  perform  the  family  could  not  be 
expected  to  do  any  of  them  very  well,  and  we  know 
that  they  were  not  well  done.  The  protection  fur- 
nished was  poor;  the  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  were 
poor;  the  religion  was  crude  and  frequently  degrad- 
ing; the  right  education  of  the  children  could  not  be 
given,  and  the  pleasures  were  gross  and  debasing. 
It  could  be  no  other  way  under  such  conditions. 

That  there  was  first  a  felt -need  for  the  organi- 


18  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

zation,  the  church,  after  the  family  may  seem  strange, 
but  history  shows  it  is  the  truth.  And  when  there  is 
a  strong  felt-need  for  any  thing,  the  thing  is  thus 
produced  which  will  satisfy  the  need.  Thus  the 
second  institution  of  society  which  came  into  exist- 
ence was  the  church  as  a  product  differentiated  from 
the  family.  To  say  that  the  church  had  its  origin  in 
the  thought  that  it  as  an  institution  could  furnish 
gratification  for  man's  religious  impulses  better  than 
the  family  could  is  a  true  statement.  If  such  had 
not  been  the  case,  the  church  would  have  had  no 
reason  for  coming  into  existence. 

The  next  institution  to  differentiate  was  doubt- 
less the  school.  It  grew  out  of  the  thought  that  it  as 
an  institution  could  educate  the  children  better  than 
could  be  done  by  the  family  or  the  church,  or  by 
both.  So  the  school  had  its  origin  in  the  thought  that 
it  as  an  institution  could  do  the  work  of  educating  the 
children  better  than  any  other  institution  in  existence. 

This  is  the  thought  that  created  it,  and  it  is  the 
sole  purpose  of  the  school  to  realize  this  thought;  for 
it  is  the  function  of  everything  to  realize  the  idea  that 
created  it,  and  the  school  accords  to  this  law. 

Illustration. — It  may  be  truly  said  that  the  idea 
which  created  the  cotton-gin  was  the  idea  of  some 
machine  to  separate  the  fiber  of  the  cotton  from  the 
seed.  And  it  is  the  purpose,  or  function,  of  the  cot- 
ton-gin to  realize  this  idea;  that  is,  to  do  the  work  of 
separating  the  fiber  of  the  cotton  from  the  seed. 


THE  SCHOOL.  19 

This  we  know  it  does  well,  and  its  doing  this  well  is 
what  has  kept  the  cotton-gin  in  existence. 

The  origin  of  the  state,  and  business  life  may  be 
accounted  for  in  the  same  way  as  the  origin  of  the 
school;  that  is,  they  arose  in  the  process  of  differ- 
entiation of  the  institutions.  It  is,  however,  our 
purpose  here  to  study  the  origin  of  the  school  only. 

Differentiation  in  the  School. — The  first  school  was, 
doubtless,  a  very  simple  and  primitive  affair.  It 
probably  consisted  of  a  few  students  congregated 
under  the  shade  of  some  friendly  tree  to  receive  in- 
struction from  one  who  occupied  the  place  of 
teacher.  Within  the  memory  of  men  now  living  the 
school  was  very  simple.  The  house  was  a  log  cabin 
containing  almost  no  furniture;  the  curriculum  was 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic.  The 
country  school  was  Primary  school,  High  school, 
Academy,  Normal  school,  Technical  school,  College, 
and  University.  But  from  this  simple  beginning  by 
differentiation  our  schools  have  become  quite  complex 
and  elaborate.  There  has  been  differentiation  at  any 
rate  along  four  lines  as  follows: 

1.  In  the  school  as  a  whole. 

2.  In  the  work  of  the  teacher. 

3.  In  the  curriculum. 

4.  In  the  grading. 

Once  there  was  nothing  but  the  primary  schools, 
but  now  there  are  Primary  schools,  High  schools, 
Technical  schools,  Colleges,  and  Universities,  each 


20  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

with  its  own  special  work  to  do.  Once  a  teacher 
taught  everything  in  the  school  course,  but  now  in 
many  places  there  is  a  special  teacher  for  each  sub- 
ject. The  curriculum  once  consisting  of  only  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic  is  now  changed  by 
differentiation  to  one  consisting  of  the  following 
groups:  1.  The  language  group.  2.  The  science 
group.  3.  The  history  group.  4.  The  mathe- 
matical group.  5.  The  art  group.  Now  the  curriculum 
is  quite  complex  and  extensive.  And  lastly  differen- 
tiation has  brought  about  grading  in  our  schools. 
The  teacher  in  the  first  schools  taught  all  grades, 
while  the  tendency  is  now  towards  but  one  or  two 
grades  for  a  teacher. 

This  differentiation  in  all  lines  of  school  work 
means  progress.  It  means  a  saving  of  time  and 
energy.  Division  of  labor,  or  differentiation,  in  the 
school  means  progress  just  as  truly  as  it  means 
progress  in  any  kind  of  life. 

Illustration. — Suppose  the  farmer,  in  addition  to 
producing  products  of  the  farm,  had  to  make  his  own 
machinery,  grind  his  wheat  and  corn  for  flour  and 
meal,  tan  the  skins  and  make  his  boots  and  shoes, 
do  his  own  carpenter  work,  saw  his  lumber,  produce 
cotton,  wool,  and  flax,  weave  them  into  cloth  for  cloth- 
ing, be  his  own  doctor,  dentist,  lawyer,  teacher,  and 
preacher,  none  of  these  lines  of  work  could  be  so  well 
done  as  they  now  are  when  this  labor  is  divided 
up  among  many  persons.  Time  and  energy  would 


THE  SCHOOL.  21 

be  lacking  the  farmer  to  do  so  many  kinds  of  work 
well.  Also,  there  is  not  only  more  energy  to  put  on 
any  one  kind  of  work  when  labor  is  differentiated, 
but  any  one  doing  just  one  or  two  lines  of  work  be- 
comes more  skillful  than  he  could  become  when  doing 
many  lines  of  work,  and,  thus,  will  do  his  work  much 
better. 

The  origin  of  the  school  thus  being  seen  in  the 
study  of  the  differentiation  of  institutions,  the  next 
topic  to  invite  study  is  the  elements  of  the  school. 

The  Elements  of  the  School. — It  has  been  seen  that 
the  school  is  a  complex  whole;  that  is  a  whole  made 
up  of  many  parts,  or  elements,  some  of  which  are  of 
less  importance  than  others.  These  elements  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  and  these  classes  may 
appropriately  be  called: 

1.  The  necessary  elements. 

2.  The  supplementary  elements. 

The  necessary  elements  are  those  without  which 
the  school  can  not  exist.  The  school  is  wholly  for  the 
learner,  and  without  the  learner  there  can  be  no  school. 
So  the  learner  is  the  first  and  most  important  of  the 
necessary  elements  of  the  school.  The  learner 
makes  necessary  a  teacher.  While  a  school  can  not 
exist  without  the  learner,  no  more  can  it  exist  with- 
out the  teacher.  The  school  finds  the  thought  that 
created  it  in  the  process  of  fulfillment  in  the  teaching 
act,  but  to  have  the  teaching  act  requires  a  teacher. 
So  the  teacher  is  the  second  one  of  the  necessary 


22  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

elements  of  the  school.  While  the  life  of  the  learner 
is  the  thing  to  be  developed  always  in  teaching,  it 
cannot  be  developed  without  some  subject  or  sub- 
jects for  it  to  exercise  upon.  So  a  third  element,  the 
subjects  of  the  school  course,  is  also  an  absolute 
necessity.  The  term  used  to  designate  the  school 
subjects, — reading,  writing,  spelling,  geography, 
history,  etc., — taken  as  a  whole,  is  the  school  curricu- 
lum. With  these  three  elements,  the  learner,  the 
teacher,  and  the  curriculum,  a  school  may  exist,  but 
take  away  any  one  or  more  of  them  and  the  school  can 
not  exist. 

Every  school  possesses  other  elements,  which  con- 
tribute to  the  efficiency  of  the  work  the  school  has  to 
do,  but  which  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  the  school.  These  are  the  elements 
which  have  been  called  the  supplementary  elements  of 
the  school.  They  are  the  school  officials,  the  parents, 
and  the  material  equipments.  The  school  officers  are 
the  directors,  trustees,  members  of  the  school 
boards,  superintendents  of  county,  city,  and  state, 
the  commissioner  of  education,  and,  in  a  sense,  the 
legislators,  governors,  and  the  president  of  the 
country.  The  material  equipments  are  school  houses, 
school  furniture,  laboratories,  library,  apparatus,  and 
school  premises. 

Both  of  these  classes  of  elements  may  exist,  how- 
ever, and  there  still  be  no  school.  In  order  that 
there  may  be  a  school  these  elements,  whether 


THE  SCHOOL.  23 

necessary  or  supplementary,  few  or  many,  must  be 
organized,  that  is  they  must  work  in  harmony  with  the 
law  of  the  organization.  This  law  is  the  law  of  unity. 
In  order  to  understand  this  truth  well,  two  words, 
law  and  unity,  need  special  study. 

Law. — A  law  is  a  truth  which  is  true  of  a  large 
number  of  particular  cases.  Thus  it  is  a  law  that 
plants  require  sunshine,  moisture,  and  air  for  their 
growth.  This  is  a  truth  which  is  true  of  a  large 
number  of  particular  plants,  and  these  plants  are  the 
particular  cases.  Again  it  is  a  law  that  all  material 
objects  are  drawn  toward  the  center  of  -the  earth. 
This  is  a  truth  which  is  true  of  all  material  objects, 
and  these  objects  are  the  particular  cases. 

Unity. — Unity  as  used  here  means  oneness  in 
thought,  purpose,  and  effort.  It  means  harmony  in 
work  and  means.  It  is  the  harmonious  working  rela- 
tion in  the  organization.  Thus  there  is  unity  between 
the  student  and  the  teacher  when  they  are  both 
working  with  the  same  thought  in  mind  to  accomplish 
the  same  end  by  the  use  of  harmonious  means. 
There  is  unity  between  parent  and  teacher  when  they 
are  agreed  as  to  the  end  to  be  attained  in  school  work, 
and  are  also  agreed  on  the  means  and  are  working  to 
reach  the  desired  end. 

The  law  of  unity  is  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
school.  This  appears  from  the  fact  that  when  all 
the  elements  of  the  school  are  examined  at  the  time 
at  which  the  school  is  doing  its  best  work,  it  is  found 


24  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

that  it  is  when  there  is  most  unity;  also,  it  is  found 
that  when  the  school  is  doing  its  poorest  work,  is 
when  there  is  least  unity.  With  the  law  of  unity 
intact  the  school  moves  forward  without  a  jar  toward 
the  accomplishment  of  its  work — the  education  of  the 
pupil.  When  the  law  is  broken  there  always  results 
discord  and  friction.  Any  one  connected  with  the 
school,  the  teacher,  the  parent,  the  school  officers,  or 
the  student  may  break  the  law  of  the  school — the  law 
of  unity.  When  any  one  does  so,  he  breaks  a  rule 
of  the  school,  since  the  rules  of  the  school  are  but 
different  aspects  of  the  law  of  unity.  And  he  who 
breaks  the  law  of  unity  in  the  school  either  intention- 
ally or  unintentionally  has  committed  an  educational 
sin. 

Further  Material  for  Study. — After  studying  the 
school  as  an  institution  of  civilization,  there  remain 
to  be  studied  the  purpose,  or  aim,  of  the  school;  the 
necessary  elements  of  the  school;  school  management, 
the  recitation,  etc.  These  will  be  studied  in  succeed- 
ing chapters. 

The  purpose  of  the  school  is  one  with  the  end,  or 
aim,  of  education;  so  a  study  of  this  leads  to  a  study 
of  the  nature  and  purpose  of  education. 

The  nature  and  purpose  of  education  will  constitute 
the  subject-matter  of  study  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

The  Problem. — The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to 
educate  the  pupil.  But  what  does  it  mean  to  educate 
the  pupil?  What  sort  of  condition  is  the  pupil  to  be 
in  when  he  is  educated?  What  is  the  meaning  of 
what  is  called  an  education?  These  are  some  of  the 
questions  which  suggest  themselves  at  the  outset  of 
the  study.  The  real  problem  is,  What  is  the  purpose 
of  the  school?  and,  since  the  purpose  of  the  school  is 
the  same  as  the  purpose  of  education,  the  problem 
is,  What  is  the  end  to  be  reached  in  the  educating 
process?  That  is  to  say,  the  question  to  be  answered 
is,  What  is  the  aim,  or  purpose,  of  education? 

The  Problem  Answered. — There  is  scarcely  an 
educational  writer  of  note  to  be  found  who  has  not 
dealt  with  this  problem  and  who  has  not  answered 
it  in  some  way.  This  fact,  that  educators  every- 
where have  been  thinking  and  writing  upon  this 
question,  is  evidence  of  the  importance  which  school 
men  think  it  to  possess. 

It  will  prove  helpful  to  study  some  of  the 
answers  to  this  very  important  question. 

Complete  Living. — Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  doubt- 
less the  greatest  living  thinker,  says  the  purpose  of 


26  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

education   is   complete   living.    This  when  analyzed 
means: 

1.  Treating  the  body  right. 

2.  Treating  the  mind  right. 

3.  Managing  one's  affairs  right. 

4.  Rearing  a  family  right. 

5.  Behaving  right  as  a  citizen. 

6.  Spending  one's  leisure  time  right. 

This  seems  a  broad  and  comprehensive  view  of 
the  purpose  of  education.  There  is  no  kind  of  hu- 
man activity  that  this  view  of  the  aim  of  education 
does  not  touch.  Granting  that  this  is  the  true  aim 
of  education,  then  instruction  in  our  schools,  if  in 
harmony  with  this  aim,  must  give  the  pupil  knowl- 
edge which  will  furnish  guidance  in  these  six  kinds 
of  activities.  There  must  be  knowledge  gained 
which  will  furnish  guidance  in  treating  the  body  right; 
in  treating  the  mind  right;  in  managing  one's  affairs 
right;  in  rearing  a  family  right;  in  behaving  right  as  a 
citizen;  in  spending  one's  leisure  time  right. 

The  schools  in  their  present  condition  fall  far 
short  of  realizing  this  comprehensive  aim.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  in  many  of  our  school  courses  that 
has  as  its  specific  aim  to  furnish  knowledge  which 
gives  guidance  in  treating  the  mind  right.  The 
school  curriculum  is  also  almost  entirely  devoid  of 
work  which  gives  knowledge  to  furnish  guidance  in 
rearing  a  family.  Doubtless  much  in  the  average 
school  course  has  such  a  remote  connection  with 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         27 

knowledge  that  gives  guidance  in  any  of  these  six  lines 
of  human  activities  indicated,  that  the  time  spent  upon 
it  could  be  spent  much  more  profitably  some  other 
way.  That  is  to  say,  in  the  light  of  the  above  indi- 
cated purpose,  the  school  curriculum  is  inadequate  to 
a  high  degree.  This  point  will  be  studied  at  length, 
however,  in  Chapter  VI.  under  the  head  of  The 
School  Curriculum. 

Rational  Freedom. — Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  says 
that  the  aim  of  education  is  rational  freedom.  And 
by  rational  freedom  is  meant  the  power  to  choose  and 
live  in  the  highest  good.  This  means  the  power  to 
choose  and  do  that  which  will  in  every  instance  lift 
one  to  a  higher  plane  of  life  as  opposed  to  doing  as 
one  pleases  regardless  of  the  effect  it  has  upon  his 
own  life  and  the  lives  of  his  fellowmen.  Some  fancy 
their  freedom  taken  away  from  them  when  they  are 
prohibited  from  doing  those  things  which  by  degrees 
bring  upon  them  habits  constantly  degrading  to 
their  lives.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  rational  freedom 
that  is  taken  away;  in  fact,  it  is  not  freedom  at  all, 
but  the  opportunity  of  placing  themselves  in  bondage 
wrhich  is  restricted. 

Illustration. — A  man  claims  freedom  gives  him 
the  right  to  partake  of  intoxicants  to  the  extent  that 
he  becomes  drunken.  He  objects,  if  one  says  the 
law  against  drunkenness  should  be  enforced,  and 
says  his  freedom  is  restricted.  It  seems  evident 
that  the  restriction  is  not  upon  his  freedom,  but  that 


28  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

the  license  to  make  a  slave  of  himself  is  the  thing 
upon  which  the  restriction  falls.  If  he  were  free,  he 
would  know  the  evil  of  intemperance,  he  would  choose 
to  be  temperate,  and  would  have  the  force  of  character 
to  realize  his  choice. 

Thus,  since  rational  freedom  means  the  power  to 
choose  and  live  in  the  highest  good,  it  means  the 
same  thing  as  complete  living. 

Strong  Moral  Character. — Dr.  Charles  A.  McMurry 
discusses  the  question,  What  is  the  main  aim  of 
education?  in  his  work  on  "General  Method,"  and 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  strong  moral  char- 
acter.  Some  have  objected  to  strong  moral  character 
as  the  main  aim  of  education  on  the  ground  that  it 
slights  the  value  of  knowledge  in  education.  The  ob- 
jection, however,  does  not  seem  to  be  a  good  one.  In 
order  to  have  strong  moral  character  one  must  have 
knowledge  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  know  to  a  high 
degree  the  right  and  wrong  in  human  activity.  One 
is  not  likely  as  a  rule  to  do  better  than  he  knows.  He 
may  do  so,  however,  by  accident,  but  to  be  able  to  act 
right,  presupposes  the  development  of  the  thinking 
and  knowing  powers  to  the  extent  that  judgments  of 
right  and  wrong  may  be  formed.  So  to  say  that 
strong  moral  character  is  the  main  aim  of  education 
does  not  mean  that  knowledge  getting  and  the  ability 
to  think  are  to  be  slighted  at  all.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  does  mean  that  one  must  possess  a  store  of  useful 
knowledge  and  the  power  of  ready,  accurate  thought, 


THE  PURPOSE  OP  THE  SCHOOL.         29 

but  it  further  means  that  this  power  must  be  regu- 
lated and  directed  to  righteous  ends. 

To  say  that  a  man  always  has  good  motives  is  not 
equivalent  to  saying  that  a  man  has  a  strong  moral 
character.  The  Fijian  considers  murder  an  action  of 
the  highest  honor,  and  feels  that  his  life  has  been 
more  or  less  a  failure  till  he  has  killed  some  one. 
Although  some  would  say  the  act  of  killing  on 
the  part  of  the  Fijian  is  a  moral  act  because  the  motive 
is  good  to  the  Fijian,  none  probably,  would  say  the 
act  is  the  result  of  strong  moral  character.  Similarly, 
the  Turcoman  regards  theft  as  meritorious,  as  shown 
by  the  fact  that  he  makes  pilgrimages  to  the  tombs 
of  noted  robbers  to  make  offerings  to  their  departed 
spirits.  In  the  same  manner  the  Egyptian  thinks  it 
praiseworthy  to  lie  without  any  further  object  than 
that  he  may  become  skillful  in  the  art  of  lying.  Ac- 
cording to  a  class  of  thinkers  on  moral  questions  these 
acts,  murder,  theft,  and  lying,  are  moral  acts  since  the 
agent  performs  them  with  what  he  considers  a  good 
motive.  However,  the  common  sense  of  any  school 
boy  tells  him  that  these  acts  do  not  grow  out  of  strong 
moral  character. 

A  person  to  have  strong  moral  character  must 
be  a  good  thinker;  a  lover  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness; 
and  must  have  well  formed  habits  to  the  end  of  acting 
truthfully,  beautifully,  and  righteously. 

Wise  and  Virtuous  Men  and  Women. — Another  way 
of  stating  the  purpose  of  education  which  means 


30  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

substantially  the  same  as  the  purpose  stated 
above  is  to  say  the  purpose  of  education  is  to  make 
wise  and  virtuous  men  and  loomen.  Wisdom  consists 
in  knowing  what  is  the  best  thing  to  be  done  next 
under  any  set  of  circumstances,  and  virtue  consists  in 
doing  it.  Thus  a  man  or  woman  is  wise  just  to  the 
degree  that  he  or  she  knows  what  is  best  to  do  next, 
and  virtuous  just  to  the  degree  that  he  or  she  does  it. 

Harmony  of  tlie  Four  Views. — Complete  living, 
rational  freedom,  strong  moral  character,  and  wisdom 
and  virtue  as  the  purpose  of  education  all  mean  in 
substance  the  same  thing.  Each  one  emphasizes 
the  truth  that  it  is  the  function  of  education  to 
make  worthy,  honorable  men  and  women  of  unsullied 
integrity  and  virtue. 

Importance  of  the  Right  View. — Purpose  is  begin- 
ning and  end  in  every  kind  of  process.  Purpose  as 
mere  idea  is  the  beginning,  and  it  moves  forward 
guiding  the  process  to  its  realization,  the  end.  Thus 
it  determines  the  end  .reached  and  the  character  of 
the  process  in  reaching  the  end.  It  also  determines 
the  means  used  in  carrying  on  the  process. 

Illustration. — A  man  wishes  to  beautify  his 
lawn,  the  purpose,  which  exists  only  as  an  idea.  But 
it  is  the  beginning  of  the  process  of  making  the 
lawn  beautiful.  He  sets  out  shrubbery,  makes  flower 
beds  and  plants  flowers,  plans  walks  orderly  ar- 
ranged, and  constructs  a  fountain  in  some  suitable 
place.  All  this  constitutes  the  process,  which  the 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  31 

purpose  guides.  In  the  light  of  the  purpose 
the  work  must  be  neatly,  orderly,  and  artistically 
done,  or  the  beauty  will  be  marred.  The  purpose 
also  determines  the  kind  of  shrubbery,  flowers, 
walks,  and  fountain  selected;  that  is,  the  means.  All 
this  work  well  done,  the  lawn  is  beautiful,  which  is 
the  realization  of  the  purpose.  Thus  the  purpose 
was  beginning  as  idea,  and  end  as  its  realization. 

From  the  foregoing  the  importance  of  having  the 
right  purpose  of  education  fixed  in  the  mind  of  each 
student  and  teacher  may  be  seen.  It  will  determine: 

1.  The  chararacter  of  the  educational  process. 

2.  The  means  used  in  the  educational  process. 

3.  The  end  reached  by  the  educational  process. 
Of  all  the  educational  questions  which  enlist  the 

intellect  and  appeal  to  the  interests  of  the  people,  no 
other  is  more  important  than  this;  no  other  is  more 
vital  and  determining  in  its  effects;  no  other  is  more 
far-reaching  in  its  influence.  Upon  the  appreciation 
of  its  importance,  its  correct  solution,  the  faith  in  it, 
and  the  force  of  it  in  the  form  of  living 
principles  in  the  lives  of  students  and  teachers  de- 
pend not  only  the  success  and  happiness  of  individ- 
uals, but  even  the  perpetuity  of  national  life. 

Man's  Aim  in  Life. — In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  man  aims  at  two  things  in  life: 

1.  "Animal  happiness. " 

2.  ' 'Spiritual  worthiness." 

Animal    happiness    means    a    condition  in   life 


32  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

resulting  from  the  satisfying  of  one's  physical  needs. 
It  means  the  possession  of  the  material  things  of  life 
to  the  extent  that  one  may  have  an  adequate  supply 
of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  for  himself  and  family. 
It  is  somewhat  relative,  meaning  different  things  to 
different  people,  but  in  all  cases  it  refers  to  the 
possession  of  money,  property,  etc.,  to  the  end  of 
bodily  comfort.  It  is  the  practical  set  over  against 
culture;  the  physical  set  over  against  the  spiritual. 

Spiritual  worthiness  means  all  that  has  been 
discussed  under  moral  character,  rational  freedom, 
wisdom  and  virtue,  and  complete  living  from  the 
spiritual  side. 

Relation  of  These  Aims. — These  aims  are  both 
worthy  ones,  but  which  one  holds  the  dominant  place 
in  the  consciousness  and  affections  of  an  individual 
makes  a  mighty  difference  in  his  life.  It  will  change 
the  whole  current  of  his  character  and  actions.  If 
one  subordinates  spiritual  worthiness  to  animal 
happiness,  he  subordinates  the  higher  to  the  lower, 
the  animal-like  to  the  human-like,  and  will  be 
governed  more  in  his  actions  by  the  animal-like  than 
by  the  human -like.  Thus  the  proper  relation  of 
these  aims  is  that  spiritual  worthiness  must  always 
occupy  the  leading  place  in  consciousness  and  affec- 
tions, and  if  there  ever  be  conflict  between  them,  an- 
imal happiness  must  be  subordinated  to  spiritual 
worthiness.  One  may  attain  to  both  by  aiming  at 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         33 

the  higher,  but  he  is  not  likely  to  attain  to  both,  if  he 
allows  his  life  to  be  dominated  by  the  lower. 

What  the  Main  Aim  of  Education  Is  Not. — The 
predominant  aim  of  education  then  is  not  animal 
happiness,  if  it  were  man  would  be  no  better  than 
the  lower  animals  in  so  far  as  his  aim  in  life  is 
concerned.  There  is,  nevertheless  a  strong  and' 
wide-spread  belief  that  the  purpose  of  education  is 
primarily  to  furnish  a  means  for  obtaining  a  liveli- 
hood. Evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  ideas  of  a 
majority  of  the  students  who  first  enter  the  work  in 
our  universities,  normal  schools,  and  colleges.  It  is 
probably  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  students  entering  these  schools  hold  in  mind 
as  their  predominant  aim  the  money- making  purpose. 
Further  evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  ideas  that 
parents  generally  have  in  sending  their  children  to 
school.  It  is  common  for  parents  to  say,  in  reply  to 
the  question,  Why  are  you  sending  your  children 
to  school?  something  like  the  following:  "I  want  my 
child  to  be  educated  that  he  may  not  have  so  hard  a 
time  in  life  as  I  have  had. " 

What  the  Primary  Aim  of  Education  Is. — The 
primary  aim  of  education  is  strong  moral  character. 
In  our  civilization  there  is  a  need  for  strong  moral 
character  above  all  other  things.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  of  a  need  for  a  better  manhood  and  woman- 
hood among  the  masses  of  our  people,  when  the 
following  sad  truths  are  so  evident: 


34  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

1.  Ignorance,  vice,  and  poverty  go  hand  in  hand 
with  human  misery. 

2.  There  is  scarcely  a  court  in  the  land  in  which 
one  can  feel  absolutely  sure  of  justice. 

3.  No  attempt  is  made  to  conceal  the  fact  that 
to  corrupt  the  right  of  suffrage  is  regarded  as  fair 
play. 

4.  So  many  men  in  the  common  affairs  of  life 
will  not  deal  honestly  with  one  another. 

5.  Legislators  are  susceptible  to  the  influence 
of  lobbyists  and  bribery. 

6.  Men  have  not  the  moral  courage  to  crush 
out  of  existence  the  curse  of  intemperance,  which  fills 
the  jails,  penitentiaries,  and  alms  houses,  and  causes 
the  premature   death  of  eighty  thousand  citizens 
yearly  in  our  country,    which  causes   the   loss   of 
fortunes,  and  makes  homes  desolate. 

One  can  assert  without  fear  of  exaggeration  that 
the  most  pressing  need  of  the  nation,  and  humanity 
is  a  better  type  of  moral  manhood  and  woman- 
hood. John  G.  Holland's  uPrayer  of  the  Nation"  is 
as  true  now  as  it  ever  was.  He  says: 

"God  give  us  men!    A  time  like  this  demands 
Strong  minds,  great  hearts,  true  faith  and  ready  hands, 
Men  whom  the  lust  of  office  does  not  kill; 
Men  whom  the  spoils  of  office  can  not  buy. 
Men  who  possess  opinions  and  a  will; 
Men  who  have  honor  and  will  not  lie; 
Men  who  can  stand  before  a  demagogue 
And  scorn  his  treacherous  flattery  without  winking, 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        35 

Tall  men,  sun-crowned,  who  live  above  the  fog 
In  public  duty  and  private  thinking. ' ' 

Hints  from  Nature. — Education  as  a  process  is 
living  rather  than  mere  preparation  for  living,  and 
human  life  will  of  necessity  in  the  process  of  educa- 
tion conform  with  the  unfolding  of  life  wherever 
found.  Then  when  the  universal  law  of  the  unfolding 
life  process  has  been  found  out,  the  real  purpose  of 
education  has  been  discovered.  This  is  always  an 
upward  striving  to  accomplish  the  end  prompted  by 
inherent  self-urgency.  Thus  the  acorn  develops  into 
the  very  best  oak  tree  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances, true  to  the  self-urgency  inherently  in  it. 
The  grain  of  corn  grows  into  the  mature  stalk  and 
ear,  also  true  to  the  self-urgency  in  it.  Everything 
in  nature  has  an  upward  tendency  because  of  the 
self -urgency  in  it. 

The  poet  idealizes  it  thus: 

"Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might, 
An  instinct  within  it  that  reaches  and  towers, 
And  groping  blindly  above  it  for  light, 
Climbs  to  a  soul  in  grass  and  flowers." 

The  animal  world  feels  this  self -urgency,  content 
to  accomplish  the  work  nature  has  given  it  to  do. 
The  larva  develops  in  to  the  beautiful  butterfly,  true  to 
this  principle.  Within  the  egg  is  potentially  the 
songster  of  woodland  and  field,  and  its  life  consists 
in  making  the  potential  that  to  which  its  self -urgency 
points. 


36  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

Tennyson  idealizes  it  thus : 

"To-day  I  saw  a  dragon-fly 
Come  from  the  wells  where  he  did  lie. 
An  inner  impulse  rent  the  veil 
Of  his  old  husk:  from  head  to  tail 
Came  out  clear  plates  of  sapphire  mail. 
He  dried  his  wings:  like  gauze  they  grew: 
Thro'  crofts  and  pastures  wet  with  dew 
A  living  flash  of  light  he  flew. " 

The  human  being  comes  into  the  world  the  most 
in  bondage  to  his  limitations  of  all  animals.  His 
most  evident  characteristic  is  his  unpreparedness  for 
life,  his  inability  to  take  care  of  himself.  But  no  one 
can  tell  what  he  will  become;  that  is,  his  potential 
freedom  is  greater  than  any  one  knows.  It  is  confi- 
dently believed  that,  while  he  is  actually  in  bondage 
in  almost  every  way,  he  is  potentially  absolutely  free. 

Education  as  a  process  is  the  growth  from  what  the 
individual  is  to  what  freedom  is  in  him  potentially,  and 
to  which  his  self -urgency  points  him.  And  the  purpose 
of  education  from  the  hint  given  by  nature  is  to  make 
of  each  individual  the  best  man  or  woman  he  is 
capable  of  becoming;  that  is,  one  who  has  the  physic- 
al, intellectual,  sosthetic,  social,  moral,  and  religious 
aspects  of  his  life  harmoniously  developed  to  the 
end  of  scrupulous  honesty  and  integrity,  strong 
moral  character,  and  whatever  else  makes  the  even 
current  of  life  run  full  and  strong. 


THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        37 

The  poet  Holmes  puts  the  idealized  purpose  of 
education  thus : 

"Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O  my  soul, 

As  the  swift  seasons  roll! 

Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past! 
Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last, 
Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast, 

Till  thou  at  length  art  free, 
Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  by  life's  unresting  sea." 

By  way  of  emphasis  it  may  be  said  that,  if  a  man 
is  dishonest,  untruthful,  or  immoral  in  any  way,  he 
is  not  educated,  though  he  be  a  Spencer  in  thinking 
ability,  and  possesses  a  profound  knowledge  of  all 
the  arts  and  sciences  known  to  man. 

It  has  been  seen  that  the  necessary  elements  of 
the  school  are  the  learner,  the  teacher,  and  the  school 
curriculum. 

The  learner  presents  himself  to  us  for  study  as 
to  (1)  his  physical  nature,  and  (2)  his  spiritual  nature. 

Our  study  in  the  next  chapter  will  deal  with  the 
physical  nature  of  the  learner. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Importance  of  Its  Study. — Few  people  are  to  be 
found  who  have  reached  middle  or  later  life  and  who 
are  not  afflicted  with  some  sort  of  disease  which 
more  or  less  all  the  time  is  a  handicap  to  them  in 
their  pursuit  of  success  and  happiness.  Together 
with  catarrh,  rheumatism,,  etc.,  more  than  ninety 
men  and  women  in  a  hundred  are  thus  afflicted.  In 
fact,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  find  a  person  who  is 
habitually  perfectly  well.  This  fact,  that  so  few  men 
and  women  are  to  be  found  who  in  middle  or  later 
life  are  thoroughly  well  is  evidence  of  the  need  of  a 
better  understanding  of  the  laws  of  life  by  parents, 
teachers,  and  all  other  persons.  This  knowledge  is 
needed  by  each  one  that  he  may  guard  his  own  health 
and  the  health  of  those  intrusted  to  his  care. 

The  Misfortune  of  Bad  Health. — No  greater  mis- 
fortune can  come  to  cne  than  to  be  afflicted  with  bad 
health.  This  truth  is  evident  from  the  following 
facts: 

1.  Bad  health  causes  natural  pain,  weariness, 
gloom,  and  the  loss  of  time,  and  money. 

2.  It  hinders  the   performance  of   all  duties, 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.  39 

often  makes  business  impossible,  and  always  makes 
it  much  more  difficult. 

3.  It  produces  an  irritability  fatal  to  the  right 
management  of  children,  makes  one's  duties  in  the 
social  institutions  impossible,  and  the  spending  of 
one's  leisure  time  a  misery. 

"To  all  of  which  add  the  fact,  that  life,  besides 
being  thus  immensely  deteriorated,  is  also  cut  short. 
It  is  not  true,  as  we  commonly  suppose,  that  a  dis- 
order or  a  disease  from  which  we  have  recovered 
leaves  us  as  before.  No  disturbance  of  the  normal 
course  of  the  functions  can  pass  away  and  leave 
things  exactly  as  they  were.  In  all  cases  a  per- 
manent damage  is  done,  not  immediately  appre- 
ciable, it  may  be,  but  still  there;  and  along  with  other 
such  items  which  Nature  in  her  strict  account  keep- 
ing never  drops;  will  tell  against  us  to  the  inevitable 
shortening  of  our  days.  Through  the  accumulation 
of  small  injuries  it  is  that  constitutions  are  commonly 
undermined,  and  break  down  long  before  their  time. 
And  if  we  call  to  mind  how  far  the  average  duration 
of  life  falls  below  the  possible  duration,  we  see  how 
immense  is  the  loss.  "When  to  the  numerous  partial 
deductions  which  bad  health  entails,  we  add  this 
great  final  deduction,  it  results  that  ordinarily  more 
than  one-half  of  life  is  thrown  away. " 

Three  potent  factors  which  have  to  do  with  the 
health  of  all  persons  and  with  the  health  of  children 
in  particular  are/ood,  clothing,  and  shelter. 


40  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Food. — It  is  well  known  that  there  is  a  thought 
current  in  the  minds  of  some  people  to  the  effect  that 
the  child  should  not  be  allowed  to  eat  animal  food. 
It  is  thought  by  many  people  that  a  strictly  vegetable 
diet  is  the  one  most  suitable  for  children;  they  have 
joined  in  with  this  belief  without  thinking  very  much 
whether  it  is  true  or  not,  or  if  true,  why  it  is  true. 
Some  believe  this  so  strongly  that  they  will  permit 
their  children  to  have  little  or  no  meat  to  eat,  while 
many  who  eat  meat  themselves  and  permit  their 
children  to  do  so  still  believe  it  would  be  better  for 
all  parties  concerned,  if  they  would  not  eat  it. 

When  such  questions  as  this  come  up  to  be 
solved,  the  solution  can  be  found  by  applying  the 
truths  of  modern  science  to  it,  in  so  far  as  it  can  be 
solved  at  all.  Accordingly  the  thing  for  the  parent 
and  teacher  to  find  out  is  what  the  truths  of  modern 
science  show  when  applied  to  this  question.  Then, 
let  us  study  this  question  in  the  light  of  the  truths 
of  modern  science. 

Three  reasons  are  given  in  support  of  the  theory 
that  children  should  live  on  an  exclusively  vegetable 
diet: 

1.  It  is  claimed  that  the  health  of  the  child  is 
better  promoted  by  a  vegetable  dietary. 

2.  It  is  claimed  that  the  child  whose  dietary  is 
vegetable  has  a  better  disposition  than  the  one  whose 
food  is  mixed. 


I 

THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  41 

3.  And  lastly  it  is  claimed  that  it  is  wrong  ta 
kill  animals  for  food. 

Let  us  study  each  of  these  points.  The  main- 
tenance of  the  health  of  the  child  demands  food  for 
three  things:  1.  To  make  up  for  the  waste  of  the 
body.  2.  To  supply  fuel  to  keep  up  the  temperature 
of  the  body.  3.  To  furnish  material  for  building  up 
new  tissue — for  growth.  These  three  demands  may 
be  met  in  three  ways:  1.  By  small  quantities  of 
concentrated  food.  2.  By  moderate  quantities 
of  moderately  rich  food.  3.  By  large  quantities  of 
dilute  food.  Small  quantities  of  concentrated  food 
are  not  desirable,  because  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that, 
an  effort  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body  by  too  con- 
centrated food  leads  to  disease  of  the  digestive 
organs. 

Large  quantities  of  dilute  food  are  undesirable^ 
because  too  great  a  task  is  imposed  upon  the  digestive 
organs  to  promote  their  health,  and  the  system  re- 
quires an  economy  of  digestion  that  energy  may  not 
be  drawn  away  from  other  work  of  the  body  to  the 
work  of  digestion  unduly. 

As  a  rule  vegetable  food  is  too  dilute  to  supply 
the  needs  of  the  body  unless  it  is  taken  in  too  large: 
quantities  for  the  best  results  to  the  digestive  organs. 
One  of  two  things  is  likely  to  result:  1.  There  may 
be  an  abnormal  development  in  size  of  the  digestive 
organs.  2.  Or  there  may  result  disease  of  the  di- 
gestive organs  by  overwork. 


42  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

Thus  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  digestive 
organs  healthy  by  giving  them  enough  work  to  do 
and  yet  not  overworking  them  a  diet  of  mixed  veg- 
etable and  animal  food  seems  the  best. 

The  body  demands  three  kinds  of  organic  foods: 
proteids,  sugars,  and /ate.  The  proteids  are  muscular 
tissue  builders  and  must  be  supplied  the  body  to 
enable  it  to  maintain  its  strength.  Meats  and  milk 
are  rich  in  proteids,  but  vegetables  are  not  rich  in 
these.  On  the  other  hand  few  of  them  contain  any 
considerable  quantities  of  proteids.  Thus  since  the 
body  must  have  proteids,  it  seems  the  most  natural 
way  to  supply  them  with  animal  food. 

Our  teeth  indicate  that  the  natural  food  of  the 
human  race  is  one  mixed  of  vegetables  and  meats. 

And  lastly  our  first  food  is  animal  food. 

From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  the  verdict  of 
science  is  that  under  natural  conditions  a  dietary 
mixed  of  vegetable  food  and  animal  food  is  the  natural 
one  and  the  best  one  for  children  in  order  to  promote 
health. 

In  regard  to  the  assertion  that  animal  food  gives 
children  bad  dispositions,  it  is  perfectly  true  to  say 
that  this  assertion  has  never  been  proven.  It  is  a 
mere  assertion  without  proof.  On  the  other  hand 
good  feeding  and  good  dispositions  go  together 
throughout  the  whole  animal  world.  The  Esquimau 
and  the  Laplander  are  not  distinguished  for  their  bad 
dispositions,  but  for  just  the  opposite  characteristics. 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OP   THE  CHILD.  43 

They  are  both  easy-going  sort  of  fellows  that  can  not 
easily  be  provoked  into  a  fight,  yet  they  and  their 
ancestors  for  ages  have  lived  almost  wholly  on  meat. 

With  respect  to  the  third  reason  urged,  it  may 
be  truly  said  that  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  it  is  wrong 
to  kill  animals  for  food  any  more  than  it  is  to  kill 
plants,  or  any  more  than  it  is  to  kill  them  when  they 
become  pests. 

The  mass  of  scientific  evidence  seems  to  be 
entirely  against  a  strictly  vegetable  diet  for  children 
and  in  favor  of  a  mixed  one. 

Clothing. — There  are  some  ideas  in  regard  to 
clothing  more  or  less  generally  held  which  are  the 
source  of  evil  and  human  misery.  These  ideas  are 
the  following: 

1.  It  is  held  that  children's  health  may  be  better 
preserved  by  dressing  them  in  clothing  insufficient 
in  quantity  and  quality  and  thus  hardening  them. 

2.  Fashion  is  given  the  precedence  of  comfort 
in  children's  clothing. 

The  child  needs  clothing  for  three  things:  1.  To 
protect  him  from  cold.  2.  To  protect  him  from 
heat.  3.  To  protect  him  from  substances  which 
might  otherwise  injure  him. 

In  the  process  of  hardening  children  the  first 
purpose  of  clothing  is  violated  in  that  the  child  is  not 
protected  from  cold.  "The  common  notion  about 
'hardening'  children  is  a  grievous  delusion.  Chil- 
dren are  not  infrequently  'hardened'  out  of  the  world; 


44  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

and  those  who  survive,  permanently  suffer  either  in 
growth  or  constitution. "  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
a  constant  quantity  of  heat  is  necessary  to  the  health 
and  growth  of  the  body.  If  this  quantity  of  heat  is 
lessened  for  any  considerable  time  because  of  a  lack 
of  clothing  or  because  of  exposure,  one  of  two  things 
will  result: 

1.  The  health  will  be  impaired.  2.  Or  merely 
retarded,  or  stunted,  growth  will  result.  If  the  con- 
stitution is  not  strong  enough  to  bear  the  loss  of  heat, 
the  result  will  be  sickness,  disease,  and  premature 
death.  However,  if  the  constitution  be  sturdy  enough 
to  bear  the  loss  of  heat,  no  further  injury  may  result 
than  stunted  growth. 

"This  truth  is  displayed  alike  in  animals  and 
man.  The  Shetland  pony  bears  greater  inclemencies 
than  the  horses  of  the  south,  but  is  dwarfed.  High- 
land sheep  and  cattle,  living  in  a  colder  climate,  are 
stunted  in  comparison  with  English  breeds.  In  both 
the  arctic  and  the  ant-arctic  regions  the  human  race 
falls  much  below  its  ordinary  height:  the  Laplander 
and  Esquimau  are  very  short;  and  the  Terra  del  Fue- 
gians,  who  go  naked  in  a  cold  latitude,  are  described 
by  Darwin  as  so  stunted  and  hideous,  that  one  can 
hardly  make  one's  self  believe  that  they  are  fellow- 
creatures." 

The  only  safe  rule  is,  children  must  wear  clottes 
sufficient  in  quantity  and  quality  to  protect  the  body 
from  any  abiding  sensation  of  cold,  however  «/ 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.  45 

Children  are  also  frequently  required  to  wear 
clothing  which  makes  them  uncomfortable  in  order 
to  conform  to  fashion;  also,  clothing  made  of  such 
unsubstantial  material  that  their  freedom  of  play  and 
activity  is  restricted  that  the  clothing  may  not  be 
soiled  or  torn.  This  freedom  of  activity  is  very 
necessary  to  the  child's  growth  and  development. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  child's  welfare,  the 
following  rules  should  be  strictly  adhered  to  in 
clothing  children: 

1.  While  clothing  should  not  be  in  excess,  it  should 
always  be  sufficient  in  quantity   and   quality  to  pre- 
vent any  abiding  feeling  of  cold. 

2.  It  should  be  made  of  non-conductive  material, 
and  strong  enough  to  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  childish 
sports  with  little  damage,  and  of  color  well  adapted  to 
use  and  exposure. 

The  Pedagogy  of  Food  and  Clothing. — But  what  is 
the  pedagogical  bearing  of  food  and  clothing?  Two 
thoughts  here  suggest  themselves: 

1.  Excellent  opportunities  often  present  them- 
selves for  bringing  these  facts,  that  the  child's 
welfare  demands  that  he  have  plenty  of  wholesome, 
nutritious  food,  and  plenty  of  clothing  of  the  right 
quality,  before  parents  and  people  in  general.  There 
is  opportunity  in  this  respect  for  great  improvement 
in  the  conditions  which  affect  the  education  of 
children,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  each  teacher  to  do 
what  he  can  to  improve  these  conditions.  The  teacher 


46  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

must  understand  and  be  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  improvement  of  these  conditions  to  do 
effectively  his  part  toward  bettering  them. 

2.  The  teacher  who  understands  the  relation  of 
food  and  clothing  to  the  child's  life  will  not  expect  the 
same  quality  or  quantity  of  work  from  the  poorly  fed 
and  poorly  clad  child  that  he  will  expect  from  his  more 
fortunate  companions.  Not  all  children  can  be 
treated  alike  in  teaching.  The  teaching  must  con- 
form to  the  needs  of  the  child,  and  the  needs  of  no 
two  children  are  the  same.  The  knowledge  of  food 
and  clothing  in  their  relation  to  the  education  of  the 
child  will  give  the  teacher  more  charity  and  more 
sympathy  in  teaching  those  children  who  are  poorly 
fed  and  poorly  clad.  And  the  charity  and  sympathy  of 
the  teacher  for  his  children  is  of  the  highest  importance 
to  them. 

ScJioolroom  Conditions. — There  are  several  points 
concerning  the  condition  of  the  schoolroom  which  are 
properly  to  be  discussed  in  pedagogy  work;  and  be- 
cause of  their  relation  to  the  child's  physical  nature, 
it,  from  one  viewpoint,  is  proper  to  discuss  them 
here.  These  points  are:  1.  Ventilation.  2.  Tem- 
perature. 3.  Lighting.  4.  Seating.  5.  Cleanliness. 

Ventilation. — The  general  well-being  of  the  body 
depends  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood. 
If  the  blood  be  not  properly  aerated,  the  whole  body 
suffers  at  once  from  the  effects  of  the  blood  upon  it. 
There  is  drowsiness,  stupor,  fatigue,  headache,  and  a 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OP  THE  CHILD.  47 

general  ill-feeling  and  the  lack  of  vivacity.  These 
conditions  continued  lead  to  bad  colds,  catarrh, 
neuralgia,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs  and 
death.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  child's  physical 
welfare,  proper  ventilation  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  seventy- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  students  in  a  schoolroom  suffering 
with  colds  at  one  time,  the  teacher  oftentimes 
attributing  this  condition  of  things  to  circumstances 
over  which  he  has  no  control  when  it  often  happens 
that  he  is  largely  to  blame  for  it  in  neglecting  proper 
ventilation.  The  child's  success  in  life  will  depend 
to  such  a  large  extent  upon  his  physical  excellence 
that  it  becomes  of  the  highest  importance  to  the 
teacher  to  do  his  part  in  giving  him  a  sound  body. 

The  Difficulty  of  Proper  Ventilation. — Proper 
ventilation  in  ninty-nine  school  houses  in  a  hundred 
is  an  absolute  impossibility.  Each  person  in  a  mixed 
audience  should  have  not  less  than  3000  cubic  feet  of 
fresh  air  per  hour;  or  to  say  it  in  another  way,  each 
person  should  be  provided  with  from  40  to  50  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute,  and  this  should  be  distributed  with- 
out producing  draughts.  These  conditions  simply 
can  not  be  provided  in  most  schoolrooms. 

A  system  of  ventilation  called  the  plenum  system 
will  provide  these  conditions.  According  to  this 
"the  fresh  air  is  forced  into  the  schoolroom  by 
means  of  a  fan,  and  the  foul  air  is  pushed  out  through 
any  openings  in  the  rooms,  and  passes  away  through 


48  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

a  stack.  The  air  in  the  rooms  in  such  a  system  as 
this  is  under  constant  pressure.  All  spaces  are 
filled  with  air  and  all  leakage  is  toward  the  outside. 
Thus  the  entrance  of  contaminated  air  from  any 
outside  source  is  absolutely  prevented. " 

The  plenum  system  is  the  best  system  because 
the  air  in  the  room  is  under  constant  pressure  toward 
the  outside,  thus  pushing  the  bad  air  out  all  the 
lime  and  preventing  any  bad  air  from  coming  in  from 
the  outside. 

But  not  many  of  our  schoolrooms  have  an  engine 
to  drive  the  fan,  and  most  school  officers  think  they 
cannot  afford  such  expensive  ventilating  apparatus. 

Important  Points  on  Ventilation. — Our  plan  of 
study  does  not  permit  a  detailed  discussion  of  the 
technique  of  ventilation,  though  it  is  a  profitable 
study  for  the  teacher. 

There  are  two  things  which  must  be  efficiently 
provided  for  in  a  properly  ventilated  schoolroom : 

1.  All  parts  of  the  room  must  be  furnished  with 
an  adequate  amount  of  fresh  air  at  all  times. 

2.  The  air  must  be  got  into  the  room  in  such  a 
way  that  the  pupils  and  teacher  may  not  be  exposed 
to  draughts  at  any  time.     Draughts  are  the  source 
of  colds,  sore  throat,    earache,  neuralgia,  catarrh, 
rheumatism,  etc. 

The  two  following  points  also  need  emphasis: 
1.     Air  may  be  cold  and  at  the  same  time  be  impure 
and  unfit  to  breathe. 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OP   THE  CHILD.  49 

2.  It  is  an  important  duty  of  every  teacher  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  technique  of  ventilation 
in  order  that  he  may  do  as  much  as  possible  toward 
ventilating  properly  both  his  schoolroom  and  his 
living  rooms. 

That  air  may  be  cold  and  at  the  same  time  be 
impure  is  a  truth  that  janitors  as  a  rule  seem  entirely 
incapable  of  getting  into  their  heads.  Nearly  every 
one  has  had  the  exasperating  experience  of  sitting1 
at  some  public  gathering  suffering  intensely  from 
cold  and  bad  air  at  the  same  time.  That  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  room  shows  the  temperature  to  be 
68°  is  no  guarantee  of  the  purity  of  th©  air  in  the 
room. 

Temperature. — No  schoolroom  is  conducive  to 
health,  which  is  either  too  warm  or  too  cold.  If  it  is 
too  cold,  it  will  bring  on  a  sensation  of  chilliness  that 
is  not  only  extremely  uncomfortable,  but  dangerous 
to  the  health.  All  the  evils  which  result  from  clothing" 
deficient  in  quantity  and  quality  may  likewise  result 
from  sitting,  working,  and  living  in  an  atmosphere  of 
too  low  temperature.  Colds,  sore  throat,  neuralgia, 
earache,  catarrh,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  rheuma- 
tism, stunted  constitution,  and  arrested  physical 
growth,  and  even  death  may  be  traced  to  this  source 
in  many  cases. 

The  results  are  almost  as  bad  if  the  schoolroom 
is  constantly  kept  too  warm.  Two  undesirable 
things  grow  out  of  constantly  keeping  the  schoolroom 


50  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

too  warm,  as  follows: 

1.  The  enervating  effect  a  too  high  temperature 
produces  upon  one's  life.     There  is  nothing  which 
more  quickly  takes  the  energy,  vivacity,  and  vitality 
out  of  students  and  teacher  than  a  school  atmosphere 
habitually  kept  too  warm. 

2.  The  diseases  which  result  from  leaving  a 
room  too  warm  and  going  out  into  the  open  air.     The 
sudden  change  of  temperature  brought  about  in  this 
way  is  a  constant  source  of  pulmonary  troubles. 

A  temperature  of  70°  Fahrenheit  is,  all  things 
considered,  the  temperature  which  should  as  nearly 
as  possible  be  maintained  in  the  schoolroom.  Any 
variation  from  this  of  more  than  two  degrees  should 
be  avoided;  for  if  the  temperature  be  more  than  72° 
some  one  will  be  suffering  with  heat;  if  it  be  below 
68°,  some  one  will  be  too  cold. 

Every  schoolroom  should  be  provided  with  a 
thermometer,  if  not  by  the  school  board,  by  the 
teacher,  in  order  that  approximately  the  proper 
temperature  may  be  maintained.  A  good  ther- 
mometer with  a  scale  from  40°  below  zero  to  240° 
above  mounted  on  a  metal  frame  costs  only  25  cts., 
and  should  be  owned  by  every  teacher  as  an  aid  in 
his  school  work. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  that 
temperament,  clothing,  and  food  of  children  have  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  question  of  temperature  that 
no  really  earnest,  sympathetic  teacher  will  ignore. 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  51 

Some  children  are  comfortable  in  an  atmosphere  at 
68°,  some  at  70°,  and  others  at  72°.  Some  are  clothed 
too  warmly,  some  about  right,  and  some  are  too 
scantily  clothed.  Again  some  have  an  abundance  of 
food  of  good  quality,  while  others  have  food  deficient 
both  in  quantity  and  quality.  No  teacher  can  afford 
to  overlook  these  various  conditions,  and  no  sympa- 
thetic, loving  teacher  will  want  to  do  so. 

Lighting. — The  facilities  for  lighting  our  school 
houses  are  as  a  rule  very  bad.  They  are  very  much 
worse  than  people  generally  suppose,  so  bad  that 
a  school  house  is  hardly  to  be  found  well  enough, 
lighted  to  prevent  diseases  of  the  eyes  from  being- 
contracted  where  students  habitually  study  in  them. 
Light  insufficient  in  quantity  is  admitted  to  the  room, 
and  what  is  admitted  comes  into  the  room  in  such  a. 
way  that  it  hurts  the  eyes.  In  fact  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  school  rooms  in  a  thousand  do  not  con- 
form in  their  facilities  for  lighting  to  the  truths 
which  modern  science  teaches  on  this  subject. 

The  defects  in  facilities  for  lighting  our  school 
houses  are  so  universal  that  some  diseases  of  the  eyes 
caused  thereby  have  come  to  be  known  as  school 
diseases.  Myopia  (short-sightedness)  and  Asthenopia 
(weakness  of  the  eyes)  are  the  most  prevalent  of 
these. 

Recent  studies  show  that  our  school  houses  have 
been  and  are  veritable  factories  for  producing 
myopia.  Large  numbers  of  school  children  have 


52  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

been  studied  in  Germany,  France,  Sweeden,  Russia, 
and  America  for  the  purpose  of  getting  helpful  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  of  myopia  among  school 
children.  Dr.  Hermann  Cohn  examined  the  eyes  of 
10,060  school  children  and  found  myopia  gradually 
increasing  from  1.4  per  cent,  in  the  village  schools 
to  26.2  per  cent,  in  the  gymnasia.  Those  children 
who  had  been  in  the  village  schools  six  months  or 
less  showed  no  myopia. 

Dr.  Motias  examined  in  France  the  eyes  of  6,680 
students  with  similar  results;  he  found  that  in  some 
colleges  the  percentage  of  myopic  students  was  as 
high  as  80. 

Dr.  Dowling  examined  the  eyes  of  1,000  school 
children  in  Cincinnati  and  found  that  a  little  more 
than  30  per  cent,  of  them  were  short-sighted.  All 
the  cases  examined  showed  a  gradual  increase  of 
myopia  from  the  first  grade  on  through  the  schools 

Causes  of  Myopia. — It  is  generally  agreed  among 
school  authorities  that  the  causes  of  myopia  among 
school  children  are  as  follows: 

L  Too  little  light  in  the  schoolroom,  which  re- 
quires habitually  holding  the  work  too  close  to  the 
eyes. 

2.  Too  much  written  work  in  the  lower  grades 
in  the  preparation  and  reciting  of  the  lessons. 

3.  Too  long  periods  of  eye  work. 

4.  The  reading  of  books  printed  with  too  small 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  53 

type  on  glistening  paper  and  with  the  lines  crowded 
too  closely  together;  that  is,  poorly  leaded. 

5.  Bad  seats  which  cause  stooping  postures 
favorable  to  congestion  of  the  eyes. 

The  question,  What  is  to  be  the  test  of  the  proper 
amount  of  light  in  the  schoolroom?  is  pertinent. 
Authorities  are  quite  generally  agreed  that,  when 
there  are  no  outside  obstructions  to  keep  the  light  a- 
way  from  the  windows,  there  will  be  enough  light  in. 
the  room  if  the  windowpane  surface  is  one-fourth  of 
the  floor  surface;  that  is  to  say,  there  should  be  1 
square  foot  of  windowpane  surface  to  every  4  square 
feet  of  floor  surface. 

Undesw -ability  of  Myopia. — Myopia  is  a  disease- 
It  is  undesirable  and  is  to  be  carefully  avoided  for  the 
following  reasons : 

1.  It  is  disagreeable,   painful  oftentimes,  and 
always  inconvenient. 

2.  It  is  unnatural  and  places  the  one  afflicted  at 
a  disadvantage  in  life  in  the  struggle  for  success  and 
happiness. 

3.  It  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  nervous 
system  that  it    tends    to    bring  on  other   nervous 
diseases. 

Rules  for  Prevention. — Schoolrooms  should  never 
be  more  than  33  feet  in  length  and  24  feet  in  width. 
There  should  be  an  abundance  of  windows  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  admit  the  light  from  the  left  and  the 


54  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

rear  of  the  students.     Blackboards  should  be  at  the 
front  and  at  the  right. 

Dr.  A.  G.  Young,  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  in  Maine,  and  an  eminent  authority  on  school 
hygiene,  gives  the  following  rules  for  the  prevention 
of  myopia  in  school: 

1.  The  schoolroom  should  have  an  abundance  of 
light  in  every  part.      The  principal  source  of  light 
should  be  at  the  pupil's  left. 

2.  The  periods  of  eye  work  should  not  be  too 
long. 

3.  A  large  part  of  the  instruction  should  be 
communicated  orally  during  school  hours,  and  the 
eyestraining  and  timerobbing  preparation  of  written 
lessons  should  be  reduced   to  the  lowest  possible 
point. 

4.  The  school  work  to  be  done  at  home  should 
be  limited  to  a  very  small  amount,  and  in  the  younger 
classes  to  none. 

5.  The  desks  and  seats  should  be  of  the  proper 
pattern  and  size,  otherwise  stooping  or  other  postures 
favoring  congestion  of  the  eye  and  production  of 
myopia  will  be  assumed  by  the  pupil. 

6.  The  demand    for    written    work   should  be 
moderate. 

7.  The  type  of  all  school  books  and  other  books 
for  children  should  bo  large  and  distinct. 

8.  Blackboards  should  be  of  a  dead  black,  not 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF  THE, CHILD.  55 

glossy.  They  should  be  placed  where  they  will  be 
well  lighted. 

If  these  rules  be  well  observed,  other  school 
diseases  of  the  eye,  as  well  as  myopia,  will  be  reduced 
to  the  minimum. 

Seating. — This  subject  will  be  studied  from  a 
different  viewpoint  in  the  chapter  on  The  Management 
of  the  School  so  will  receive  but  brief  study  here. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  child's  health,  the 
proper  seating  of  a  room  is  much  more  important 
than  usually  appreciated. 

Eulenberg  studied  1000  cases  of  spinal  curvature 
and  found  that  95.8  per  cent,  of  this  1000  cases 
originated  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty,  and 
that  92  per  cent,  originated  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  fourteen. 

Posterior  curvature,  "round  shoulders,"  and 
lateral  curvature  are  to  be  avoided  as  great  mis- 
fortunes. Besides  detracting  much  from  one's 
personal  appearance,  they  impede  respiration  and 
other  functions. 

Then  seats  and  desks  should  be  of  proper  size 
and  pattern  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  That  spinal  curvatures  and  other  physical 
deformities  may  be  guarded  against. 

2.  That  postures  favoring  congestion  of  the  eyes 
may  be  guarded  against. 

The  demand  for  proper  seats  in  the  schoolroom. 


56  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

will  sooner  or  later  bring  the  adjustable  seats  and 
desks  into  common  use. 

"Adjustable  desks  are  among  the  important  im- 
provements of  school  furniture.  There  are  several 
forms  on  the  market,  and  the  main  objection  to  all  of 
them  is  the  price,  making  it  almost  an  impossibility 
to  supply  whole  schoolrooms  with  them.  From  the 
hygienic  standpoint,  each  child  should  have  his  desk 
adjusted  to  himself;  but  where  this  is  impossible,  it 
has  been  found  of  advantage  to  have  two  rows  of 
desks  and  seats,  usually  the  outer  ones,  adjustable. 
Extreme  cases  can  thus  be  accommodated. " 

Cleanliness. — It  is  a  maxim  that  *  'cleanliness  is 
next  to  godliness. ' '  A  better  statement  of  the  fact  is, 
cleanliness  is  godliness. 

Every  school  house  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
neat  and  clean.  No  paper,  bread  crumbs,  chalk, 
nutshells,  etc.,  should  be  allowed  upon  the  floor. 
The  abominable  habit  that  some  students  and  even 
teachers  have  of  expectorating  upon  the  school  house 
floor  should  not  under  any  circumstances  be  toler- 
ated. It  should  be  regarded  a  criminal  offense. 

"The  reason  for  this  care  is  that  dust  and  dirt  in 
a  schoolroom  is  a  serious  sanitary  evil.  Dust  itself 
is  an  irritant  to  the  eyes  and  the  air  passages.  Dust 
is  known  to  be  a  bearer  of  disease  germs.  Tubercu- 
losis is  certainly  transmitted  thus,  and  it  is  very 
probable  that  many  other  infectious  diseases  are 
spread  in  the  same  way.  An  infectious  inflammation 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  57" 

of  the  eyes  is  sometimes  very  prevalent  in  schools* 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  germs  of  this  disease  are 
spread  by  means  of  the  dust  in  schoolrooms  as  well 
as  in  other  ways." 

This  dust  evil  could  be  much  reduced,  if  all 
school  houses  had  hard  wood  floors  well  painted,  oir 
even  soft  wood  floors  well  filled  and  painted.  It  was 
not  long  since  popular  to  oil  the  floors  of  school 
houses,  but  two  good  coats  of  floor  paint  have  been 
made  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  oiled  floors  and 
found  not  to  have  their  objectionable  features. 

The  school  house  should  be  swept  daily  at  the 
close  of  the  afternoon  session  after  all  the  students 
have  left  the  room.  The  windows  should  be  throwifc 
wide  open,  and  the  floor  sprinkled  with  damp  saw- 
dust before  sweeping. 

The  teacher  who  is  thoroughly  in  earnest  with 
respect  to  cleanliness  will  not  be  afraid  to  take  the* 
broom  and  duster  and  set  things  to  rights,  even 
though  the  janitor  does  slight  his  work  somewhat. 
As  a  rule  one  can  tell  a  great  deal  about  the  quality  of 
the  teacher  by  the  condition  of  his  schoolroom. 

Tlie  Senses  and  the  Sense  Organs. — A  sense  is  ih& 
mental  power  to  get  sensations.  Thus  sight  is  the 
mental  power  to  get  sensations  of  light;  smell,  the 
mental  power  to  get  sensations  of  odor,  and  so  on. 

The  sense  organs  are  those  organs  which  bring 
stimulus  in  such  connection  with  the  nervous  system 
as  to  urge  the  mind  to  action.  There  are  two  general 


58  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

classes  of  senses :  1.  General,  or  organic.  2.  Special. 
Authorities  recognize  seven  special  senses,  as  follows 
in  the  order  of  importance:  1.  Sight.  2.  Hearing. 
3.  Touch.  4.  Smell.  5.  Taste.  6.  Temperature. 
7.  Muscular  sense. 

The  general,  or  organic,  sense  is  that  sense  which 
gives  us  a  knowledge  of  the  general  well-being  or  ill- 
being  of  our  bodies  and  has  no  special  sense  organ. 
Pain,  hunger,  thirst,  and  fatigue  are  sensations  got 
through  the  general  sense. 

The  special  senses  are  those  senses  which  give 
us  a  knowledge  mainly  of  objects  around  us  and  have 
special  sense  organs. 

The  sense  organs  are  of  the  highest  importance 
to  one  throughout  his  whole  life.  Through  them  the 
child  first  awakens  to  conscious  life.  Without  the 
sense  organs  the  mind  would  never  grow.  It  would 
remain  nothing  more  than  a  bundle  of  undeveloped 
capacities.  Without  the  sense  organs  all  intellectual 
growth  as  well  as  all  the  pleasures  of  living  would  be 
<lfenied  one. 

Since  the  sense  organs  are  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  education,  the  maintenance  of  their  health 
and  their  growth  become  from  a  pedagogical  point  of 
view  one  of  the  most  practical  questions  with  which 
the  teacher  has  to  deal.  All  of  the  special  sense 
organs  are  subject  to  diseased  conditions  which  may 
^demand  constant  attention,  but  in  this  brief  study 
space  is  lacking  for  the  consideration  of  more  than 


THE  PHYSICAL  NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  59 

two.  Of  special  importance  to  the  teacher  are  the 
following:  1.  The  sense  organ  of  hearing.  2.  The 
sense  organ  of  sight. 

Hearing. — Diseases  of  the  ear  almost  always  pro- 
duce partial  or  entire  deafness.  And  too  few  people 
fully  realize  what  a  sad  misfortune  partial  or  entire 
deafness  is,  and  how  many  people  are  more  or  less 
deaf. 

"Authorities  estimate  that  from  fifty  to  sixty 
per  cent,  of  the  children  are  more  or  less  defective  in 
hearing.  It  is  also  claimed  that  by  judicious  treat- 
ment the  percentage  can  be  reduced  to  fifteen  or 
twenty." 

'  'There  are  too  many  partially  deaf  people  in  every 
community.  Every  such  one  is  badly  handicapped  in 
his  business  and  social  relations.  How  many  men 
lose  good  positions  because  of  defective  hearing! 
How  many  sad  and  fatal  accidents  are  due  to  the 
same  cause!  The  new  education  can  do  no  better 
service  to  oncoming  generations  than  to  preserve  and 
perfect  this  sense  in  children." 

Children  have  been  accused  of  dullness ,  stupidity, 
sullenness,  and  obstinacy  when  the  only  difficulty  was 
they  could  not  hear  what  was  going  on  in  their  school 
work.  In  order  to  avoid  misunderstanding  his  chil- 
dren, every  teacher  should  test,  the  hearing  of  his 
children;  also,  that  he  may  do  something  towards 
seating  them  so  as  to  favor  the  unfortunate  ones. 
A  teacher  can  not  depend  upon  the  students  to  in- 


60  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

form  him  of  any  defects  of  hearing  for  two  reasons: 
first,  students  themselves  are  often  not  aware  of  the 
defects;  secondly,  people  generally  are  very  sensitive 
concerning  any  physical  defects  they  may  have,  and 
do  not  desire  to  call  attention  to  them. 

The  following  is  an  easy  and  practical  schoolroom 
test:  "The  pupil  is  placed  at  one  end  of  the  school- 
room with  his  back  turned  toward  the  teacher,  who 
dictates  in  a  clear,  but  not  loud  voice,  while  the  stu- 
dent writes.  The  teacher  should  begin  by  standing 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  room.  If,  at  that  distance, 
the  pupil  has  any  difficulty  in  hearing,  the  teacher 
gradually  approaches  until  the  pupil  understands 
perfectly,  which  will  be  shown  by  his  writing  the 
dictated  matter  perfectly  and  without  hesitation. 
According  to  the  distance  at  which  the  scholar  hears 
readily,  he  is  ranked  and  placed  in  the  schoolroom. 
If,  for  instance,  he  hears  at  a  distance  of  fifteen  feet 
only,  he  is  placed  within  that  distance  from  the 
teacher's  desk." 

Seeing. — Myopia  has  already  been  discussed  as  a 
school  disease.  Few  persons,  teachers  included,  are 
aware  of  the  number  of  cases  of  headache,  and  other 
nervous  diseases  caused  by  myopic  eyes.  Astigma- 
tism, resulting  from  irregularity  of  curvature  of  the 
lenses  of  the  eye,  is  a  disease  which  is  frequent 
among  students,  and  causes  many  nervous  headaches. 

"There  seems  to  be  no  remedy  for  these  defects 
save  in  glasses  properly  fitted.  It  is  quite  common 


THE  PHYSICAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  61 

and  is  a  prolific  source  of  headache.  Thousands  of 
cases  of  chronic  headache  have  been  promptly  cured 
by  the  use  of  glasses." 

"A  ministerial  friend  tells  me  that  a  teacher 
forced  his  son,  who  was  afflicted  with  myopia  to  hold 
his  book  at  the  regulation  distance,  and  in  the  regu- 
lation position  as  he  read  or  studied,  and  that  the 
headache  resulting  threw  him  into  such  nervous  dis- 
orders that  at  least  once  a  fortnight  he  was  obliged 
to  keep  him  out  of  school  for  three  or  four  days.  A 
lady  friend  tells  me  that  her  little  daughter  had  been 
coming  home  every  day  for  months  with  a  bad  head- 
ache, and  that  she  was  losing  all  interest  in  school, 
when  the  writer  visited  the  city  and  urged  the 
teachers  to  test  the  sight  and  hearing  of  their  pupils. 
This  girl  was  found  defective  in  eyesight  and  given  a 
front  seat.  In  two  weeks  her  headache  was  all  gone, 
and  her  interest  in  school  had  returned." 

A  large  number  of  similar  cases  might  be  given, 
but  these  will  suffice. 

It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  test  the  eye- 
sight of  his  children.  Every  teacher  can  procure  a 
set  of  Snellin's  test  cards  of  almost  any  jeweler  or 
optician  for  ten  cents,  and  can  learn  to  use  them  cor- 
rectly in  tests  in  five  minutes.  They  are  as  good  test 
cards  as  can  be  secured.  Having  found  the  defectives, 
the  teacher's  duty  is  to  inform  the  parents  or  guard- 
ians and  do  what  may  be  done  by  seating  the  stu- 
dents so  far  as  possible  so  as  to  favor  the  defective 


62  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

ones.      Any  earnest,    sympathetic  teacher  will  be 
willing  to  do  so  much  for  his  pupils. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD. 

An  Attribute. — An  attempt  to  study  anything  to 
the  end  of  knowing  it  well  always  consists  in  seeking 
out  the  attributes  of  that  thing,  and  an  object  is  well 
known  only  when  many  of  its  attributes  have  been 
discovered  and  learned.  Thus  all  learning  consists- 
in  grasping  with  the  mind  the  attributes  of  things. 
If  one  sees  all  the  attributes  of  any  object,  he  knows 
all  there  is  to  know  about  that  object.  Then  to  know 
all  the  attributes  there  are  in  the  universe  to 
know  means  entire  freedom  of  the  knowing  power > 
the  intellect. 

An  attribute  is  perhaps  indefinable,  but  the  fol- 
lowing statement  will  characterize  it:  An  attribute 
is  any  mark  of  an  object  which  helps  the  mind  in  knowing 
it. 

Classes  of  Attributes. — There  are  some  attributes 
belonging  to  objects  which  enable  the  mind  to  know 
an  object  from  everything  else  in  the  universe.  Such 
an  attribute  is  called  a  particular  attribute.  There 
are  again  some  attributes  which  belong  to  every 
object  in  a  class.  Such  attributes  are  called  common 
attributes.  Of  the  common  attributes  some  belong 


64  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

alike  to  each  object  of  a  class  of  objects,  but  do  not 
extend  beyond  the  class.  These  are  class  common 
attributes.  Also  of  the  common  attributes  some 
belong  alike  to  each  object  of  a  class  of  objects,  and 
extend  to  things  beyond,  thus  connecting  the  class 
out  with  other  things  in  the  universe.  These  are 
universal  common  attributes.  From  the  above  the 
classes  of  attributes  are  particular,  and  common-,  and 
the  classes  of  the  common  are  class  common,  and 
universal  common. 

The  definitions  for  these  are  as  follows: 

A  particular  attribute  is  an  attribute  which  dis- 
tinguishes its  object  from  all  other  objects. 

A  common  attribute  is  an  attribute  which  belongs 
to  each  object  of  a  class  of  objects. 

A  class  common  attribute  is  a  common  attribute 
does  not  extend  beyond  the  class  of  objects  to 
which  it  belongs. 

A  universal  common  attribute  is  a  common  attri- 
bute ivhich  connects  a  class  of  objects  with  other  objects  in 
the  universe. 

Illustrations. — If  one  knows  a  table  well,  he 
knows  its  use,  form,  color,  material,  length,  height, 
width,  weight,  and  decorations;  also,  the  form, 
length,  width,  height,  use,  color,  material,  make, 
condition  and  decoration  of  the  parts;  also,  how  the 
parts  are  connected  with  the  table  as  a  whole  and 
with  oneanother.  But  all  these  are  the  attributes 
of  the  table.  So  to  know  the  table  is  to  know  its 
attributes. 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      65 

The  table,  no  doubt,  has  marks  not  possessed  by 
anything  else.  These  are  the  particular  attributes. 

The  use  is  a  common  attribute  and  is  also  a 
class  common,  since  it  belongs  to  all  the  class,  tables, 
and  to  nothing  else.  Possessing  weight  is  a  univer- 
sal common  attribute,  since  it  belongs  to  other 
things  than  tables. 

Attributes  of  Mind. — The  first  step  in  studying 
the  spiritual,  or  mental,  nature  of  the  child  is  the 
study  of  the  attributes  of  the  mind.  Some  might 
think  it  would  consist  of  the  study  of  the  substance 
of  which  the  mind  is  made,  but  this  can  not  be  done. 
There  is  absolutely  no  way  to  study  what  the  mind 
is  made  of,  but  its  attributes  can  be  studied.  The 
following  are  important  common,  or  general,  attri- 
butes of  mind: 

1.  Consciousness. 

2.  Attention. 

3.  Apperception. 

4.  Self-activity. 

5.  Iterativeness. 

6.  Rhythm. 

Consciousness. — If  you  are  asked  a  question,  you 
either  know  the  answer  to  it  or  you  do  not  do  so,  and 
you  further  know  that  you  know  the  answer  or  do 
not  know  it.  That  is  to  say,  you  know  the  condition, 
of  your  own  mind.  It  is  because  of  the  attribute  of 
consciousness  that  the  mind  is  able  to  do  this.  Thus 
through  consciousness  the  mind  knows  itself,  and  is 


66  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

thus  both  the  knower  and  the  thing  known.  If  with- 
out provocation  some  one  should  strike  you  in  the 
face,  you  know,  without  any  difficulty,  your  state  of 
mind  toward  that  person.  If  the  question,  How  do 
you  know  your  own  mental  states?  were  asked  you, 
you  could  answer  correctly  only  by  saying,  /  know 
them  through  consciousness.  One  gets  some  idea  of 
consciousness,  if  he  compares  his  state  of  mind 
when  he  is  sound  asleep  with  his  state  of  mind  when 
he  is  awake.  In  the  first  state  he  is  more  or  less  un- 
conscious while  in  the  second  state  consciousness  is 
at  work. 

Consciousness  is  considered  indefinable  by  some 
psychologists,  but  it  surely  can  be  defined  as  nearly 
as  many  other  things  which  are  considered  definable. 
The  following  is  the  definition  for  it: 

Consciousness  is  that  attribute  of  mind  by  virtue  of 
which  the  mind  knows  its  own  conditions  and  activities. 

Function  of  Consciousness. — Consciousness  is  the 
most  fundamental  attribute  of  the  mind.  Without 
consciousness  the  mind,  as  we  know  it,  could  not 
exist.  Consciousness  has  the  following  three  func- 
tions: 

1.  It  enables  us  to  know  one  mental  experience 
from  another. 

2.  It  enables  us  to  know  the  value  of  mental 
experiences  to  ourselves. 

3.  It  enables  us  to  direct  our  mental  activities 
to  the  accomplishment  of  mental  work. 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      67 

Attention. — The  mind  is  constantly  having  ex- 
periences. Mental  life,  and  physical  life,  too,  are  a 
succession  of  experiences.  An  experience  is  a  change 
of  any  kind,  and  a  mental  experience  is  then  a  mental 
change  of  any  kind.  Thus  mental  life  is  a  succession 
of  mental  changes. 

Most  of  our  mental  experiences  are  carried  on 
without  the  mind's  being  fully  conscious  of  them,  but 
the  mind  has  the  ability  of  bringing  any  experience 
fully  into  consciousness  and  focusing  its  energy  upon 
it.  It  is  able  to  do  this  through  the  attribute  of 
attention. 

From  the  study  so  far  it  may  be  seen  that  there 
are  two  steps  in  the  process  of  attending: 

1.  The  bringing  of  some  experience  fully  into 
consciousness. 

2.  The  focusing  of  the  mind's  energy  upon  it. 
At  first  thought  it  seems  that  the  mind's  energy 

is  focused  upon  something  outside  of  the  mind,  but  a 
careful  study  shows  that  the  mind's  energy  is  always 
focused  upon  some  mental  experience. 

From  the  above  study  the  definition  of  attention 
is  as  follows: 

Attention  is  that  attribute  of  the  mind  by  virtue  of 
which  the  mind  brings  some  experience  fully  into  con- 
sciousness and  focuses  its  energy  upon  it. 

Illustration. — One  is  sitting  in  his  room  studying 
his  lesson  in  arithmetic.  The  clock  is  sitting  on  the 
mantel  shelf  ticking  away  as  loudly  as  usual,  but  he 


68  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

does  not  hear  it  clearly,  though  he  has  a  sort  of  dim 
consciousness  of  its  ticking.  Suppose  some  one  says, 
"How  loudly  the  clock  ticks!"  Immediately  he  hears 
it  plainly.  That  is  to  say,  the  mind  brings  fully  into 
consciousness  the  experience  corresponding  to  the 
ticking  of  the  clock  and  focuses  its  energy  upon  it. 
The  focusing  element  in  attending  is  analogous  to  the 
action  of  a  lens  in  focusing  the  rays  of  light. 

Classes  of  Attention. — On  the  basis  of  the  effort 
involved  there  are  two  classes  of  attention:  1.  Non- 
voluntary.  2.  Voluntary.  If  the  mind  gives  atten- 
tion to  a  thing  because  it  is  so  attractive  that  there  is 
no  seeming  effort,  the  attention  is  non-voluntary.  If 
on  the  other  hand  an  appreciable  effort  is  required  in 
order  to  give  attention,  the  attention  is  of  the  vol- 
untary kind.  The  following  are  the  definitions: 

Non- voluntary  attention  is  that  kind  of  attention 
in  which  no  appreciable  effort  is  involved. 

Voluntary  attention  is  that  kind  of  attention  in 
which  an  appreciable  effort  is  involved. 

Interest. — Interest  is  the  basis  of  attention;  that 
is,  the  mind  must  be  interested  in  a  thing  to  pay 
attention  to  it.  The  following  is  a  definition  for 
interest: 

Interest  is  any  feeling  for  an  object  which  the  mind 
regards  as  the  cause  of  the  feeling.  If  an  object  is  so 
attractive  in  itself  as  to  hold  the  mind's  interest,  the 
interest  is  said  to  be  direct;  if,  however,  the  interest 
is  not  in  the  thing  itself,  but  in  something  else  to 


THE  MENTAL  NATUKE  OP  THE  CHILD.      69 

which  the  thing  is  a  means,  the  interest  is  indirect. 
Thus  one  sometimes  studies  a  subject  not  because  he 
is  interested  in  the  subject  but  because  he  thinks 
he  needs  it.  Thus  the  classes  of  interest  are: 
1.  Direct.  2.  Indirect. 

Direct  interest  is  that  kind  of  interest  in  which  no 
appreciable  effort  is  involved. 

Indirect  interest  is  that  kind  of  interest  in  which 
an  appreciable  effort  is  involved. 

Apperception. — All  learning  is  the  mind 's  process 
of  getting  meaning.  But  this  statement  does  not 
give  much  help  unless  we  see  what  meaning  is,  and 
what  has  the  meaning.  It  seems  at  first  thought 
that  objects  in  the  outside  world  possess  the  mean- 
ing, but  a  closer  study  shows  that  this  is  not  the 
case.  The  mind  in  learning  a  thing  gets  meaning 
from  it  just  to  the  extent  to  which  it  can  connect  its 
past  experiences  with  the  present  experiences  and 
grasp  the  likeness  and  difference  between  them. 
And  from  the  above  it  is  seen  that  meaning  is  the 
relation  between  present  and  past  mental  experiences  and 
is  in  the  mind. 

It  is  because  of  the  attribute  of  apperception 
that  the  mind  is  enabled  to  connect  the  past  mental 
experience  with  the  present  in  knowing,  willing  and 
feeling.  But  this  is  not  all  apperception  enables  the 
mind  to  do.  Apperception  enables  the  mind  to 
change  itself  permanently  with  each  experience. 
Certainly  every  experience  the  mind  has  leaves  a 


70  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

permanent  effect  upon  it.  The  mind  never  is  again 
after  an  experience  just  what  it  was  before  the  ex- 
perience. Psychologists  say  experiences  are  organ- 
ized into  the  mind,  but  it  seems  easier  to  say  exper- 
iences leave  their  effects  upon  the  mind. 

From  the  above  study  it  is  seen  that  there  are 
two  parts  to  apperceiving: 

1.  Bringing  past  experiences  to  bear  upon  the 
present  experiences. 

2.  Organizing  the  present  experiences  into  the 
self. 

By  making  a  synthesis  of  these  points  the  follow- 
ing definition  for  apperception  is  reached: 

Apperception  is  that  attribute  of  mind  by  virtue  of 
which  it  brings  its  past  experience  to  bear  upon  the  pres- 
ent experience  in  getting  its  meaning,  and  by  virtue  of 
which  tlie  present  experience  is  organized  into  the  mind. 

The  last  part  of  apperceiving  may  very  appro- 
priately be  called  mental  assimilation. 

Illustrations. — If  one  who  knows  nothing  of  geol- 
ogy were  walking  down  a  valley  and  should  find  a 
rock  almost  round,  but  having  a  plane  surface  as  if  it 
were  worn  off  by  holding  it  on  a  grindstone,  he  would 
probably  get  much  the  same  meaning  as  he  would  by 
looking  at  any  other  rock.  But  if  a  geologist  should 
find  it,  he  would  connect  his  past  experience  with 
that  aroused  by  the  rock  and  say  it  called  to  his  mind 
an  ice  age,  when  tremendous  ice  fields  covered  all  the 
northern  part  of  Indiana.  The  difference  in  these 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OP  THE  CHILD.     71 

two  men  would  be  in  the  experience  they  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  experience  aroused  by  the  rock. 

A  child  called  a  jardiniere  of  ferns  "a  pot  of  green 
feathers." 

A  small  boy  called  a  locomotive  "a  big  bow-wow. " 

The  south  sea  islanders  called  Captain  Cook's 
goats  "horned  hogs." 

In  each  of  the  above  cases  the  present  experience 
was  connected  with  the  past  in  trying  to  get  meaning, 
and  the  mind  was  able  to  do  this  because  of  the  attri- 
bute of  apperception. 

Self-activity. — Some  idea  of  self-activity  may  be 
had  by  comparing  objects  which  possess  it  with  those 
which  do  not.  A  sewing  machine  acts  in  sewing,  but 
always  from  a  power  without  itself.  A  threshing 
machine  acts,  but  the  cause  of  its  activity  is  not  with- 
in it.  All  machines  act  hi  a  manner  similar  to  the 
threshing  machine  or  sewing  machine;  that  is,  from 
a  cause  not  in  themselves.  A  horse  acts  from  a 
cause  within  himself  in  taking  food  and  changing  it  in- 
to horse  flesh;  and,  also,  by  moving  from  place  to  place, 
he  acts.  A  plant  acts  in  growing  by  taking  its  food 
from  the  soil  and  air  and  making  it  into  plant  tissue. 
The  action  of  the  horse  and  plant  are  caused  from 
within  while  the  action  of  the  machine  is  caused  from 
without.  The  horse  and  the  plant  possess  self- 
activity  but  the  machine  does  not.  The  mind  pos- 
sesses this  attribute  by  which  it  causes  its  own 
activities,  and  thus  is  self -active.  The  definition  from 
the  above  is  as  follows: 


72  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Self-activity  is  that  attribute  of  mind  by  virtue  of 
which  it  causes  itself  to  act. 

Iterativeness. — When  the  muscles  of  the  arm  and 
fingers  perform  the  movements  in  making  any  char- 
acter in  writing  for  the  first  time,  the  activity  is  done 
with  difficulty  and  very  unskillfully,  but  repeated 
attempts  give  more  skill  and  success.  Each  act 
makes  the  performance  a  little  more  easily  accom- 
plished. What  was  it  that  remained  with  the  muscles 
after  each  activity  that  caused  them  to  perform  the 
act  again  with  more  ease?  This  can  be  answered  only 
by  saying  it  is  a  tendency  left  in  the  muscle.  By 
tendency  is  meant  a  disposition  to  perform  some  activity. 
Thus  the  plumule  of  a  plant  has  a  tendency  to  grow 
upward,  and  the  radix  has  a  tendency  to  grow  down- 
ward. We  fold  a  piece  of  paper,  and  then  say  it  has 
a  tendency  to  fold  in  the  same  place  again.  The 
mind  possesses  this  attribute  by  virtue  of  which  it 
has  a  tendency  to  act  as  it  has  acted,  and  this  is  what 
is  called  iterativeness.  Conclusions  from  the  above 
study  give  the  following  definition: 

Iterati veness  is  that  attribute  of  mind  by  virtue  of 
which  it  tends  to  act  again  as  it  has  acted. 

Without  iterativeness  one  could  not  learn  to  walk, 
to  talk,  to  write,  nor  could  he  learn  any  art  whatever. 
He  could  not  remember  anything  nor  make  progress 
in  mental  growth.  In  short,  human  life  as  we  know 
it  would  be  an  impossibility. 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      73 

Rhythm. — When  the  word,  rhythm,  is  spoken,  the 
average  person  probably  thinks  of  poetry  and  music. 
But  rhythm  is  an  attribute  that  belongs  to  almost 
everything  in  the  world.  Everything  from  a  dew- 
drop  to  an  ocean,  from  a  pebble  to  a  continent,  pos- 
sesses rhythm.  Every  leaf,  every  flower,  and  every 
blade  of  grass  possesses  rhythm.  Rhythm  in  its 
broadest  sense  is  a  thing,  the  departure  from  that 
thing,  and  a  return  to  it.  The  following  is  rhythmical: 

"The  day  is  cold  and  dark  and  dreary; 
It  rains  and  the  wind  is  never  weary." 

In  this  there  is  the  sound  symbolized  by  eary  in 
the  word,  "dreary."  This  is  the  thing,  and  "It rains, 
and  the  wind  is  never  w"  is  the  departure  from  it. 
The  return  to  the  thing  is  eary  in  the  word  "weary." 

In  the  maple  leaf  rhythm  is  manifested  by  a 
portion  on  the  right  half  always  having  a  correspond- 
ing like  portion  on  the  left  half,  the  part  between  the 
like  parts  being  different.  One  of  the  like  parts  is 
the  thing,  that  between  them  is  the  departure  from 
it,  and  the  other  like  part  is  the  return  to  it.  The 
human  mind  possesses  this  tendency  to  act,  to  de- 
part from  it,  and  to  return  to  it,  and  this  is  called  the 
attribute  of  rhythm.  Since  the  mind  is  rhythmical 
it  likes  rhythm  in  anything  and  dislikes  that  which 
is  not  rhythmical.  The  world  is  full  of  rhythm,  and 
the  human  mind  longs  for  it. 

The  following  is  a  definition  for  rhythm  as  an 
attribute  of  the  mind:  Rhythm  is  that  attribute  of 


74  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

the  mind  by  virtue  of  which  the  mind  acts  an  activity, 
departs  from  it,  and  tends  to  return  to  it  at  regularly 
recurring  periods. 

Activities  of  the  Mind. — If  we  will  examine  our 
mental  activities  by  looking  within  our  minds,  we 
will  find  that  we  are  sometimes  almost  wholly  oc- 
cupied in  thinking,  again  we  are  depressed  with 
sorrow,  and  at  other  times  we  are  almost  wholly 
occupied  in  directing  our  muscular  or  mental  activ- 
ities in  doing  something.  These  distinctions  among 
the  mind's  activities  give  grounds  for  the  classification 
of  them  into: 

1.  Knowing. 

2.  Feeling. 

3.  Willing. 

Thus  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing  are  the  three 
large  classes  into  which  all  mental  activities  are 
divided. 

Knowing. — An  accurate  statement  for  knowing 
is,  knowing  is  the  mind's  process  of  getting  meaning. 
But  this  statement  does  not  give  sufficient  help  unless 
the  term,  meaning,  is  well  understood.  Most  persons, 
at  first  thought,  would  probably  say  that  meaning  is 
something  which  belongs  to  objects  in  the  external 
world.  But  careful  thinking  reveals  the  fact  that 
things  very  unlike  what  the  mind  has  ever  known 
have  very  little  meaning  to  it.  And  this  thought 
carried  out  shows  that,  if  it  were  possible  to  find  any- 
thing entirely  different  from  anything  the  mind  has 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  75 

ever  known,  it  would  suggest  absolutely  no  meaning 
to  the  mind.  Again,  two  persons  look  at  the  word, 
obliviscor,  and  while  one  gets  no  meaning  from  it,  to 
the  other  it  means  /  forget.  So  scarcely  any  two 
persons  get  the  same  meaning  from  an  object  or 
event  which  they  see.  An  object  or  event  stimulates 
to  an  activity  of  the  mind,  and,  if  the  mind  has  past 
mental  activities  of  a  similar  character  to  connect  the 
present  activity  with,  it  is  said  the  mind  gets  mean- 
ing. From  this  it  may  be  seen  that  meaning  is  a 
thing  which  is  in  the  mind.  That  is  to  say,  meaning 
is  relation;  and  further,  it  is  the  relation  between 
present  mental  experiences  and  past  mental  exper- 
iences. But  even  here  there  are  two  terms  whose 
meaning  must  be  understood.  The  first,  experience, 
explained  in  a  former  paragraph,  is  any  change,  or 
activity,  and  any  mental  experience  is  any  mental 
change,  or  activity.  The  second,  relation,  is  the  like- 
ness between  mental  experiences.  Relation  means 
in  this  connection  what  it  means  wherever  used; 
namely,  the  connection  the  mind  sees  between  its 
experiences  because  of  their  likeness. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  give  the  following 
definitions  for  knowing: 

Knowing  is  the  mind's  process  in  getting  meaning. 

Knowing  is  the  mind's  process  in  grasping  the  re- 
lation between  its  present  and  past  experiences. 

Discriminating  and  Unifying. — Discriminating  is 
seeing  differences  and  unifying  is  seeing  likenesses. 


76  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

The  mind  in  knowing  sees  likenesses  and  differences 
between  its  experiences  and  thus  discriminates  and 
unifies.  Thus  knowing  is  both  discriminating  and 
unifying.  One  thing  necessary  in  knowing  a  maple 
tree  is  to  see  the  difference  in  the  mental  activity  it 
arouses  and  in  the  mental  activity  aroused  by  an  oak 
tree;  and  a  second  thing  necessary  is  to  see  the  like- 
ness between  the  activity  aroused  by  the  maple  tree 
and  the  activities  aroused  by  maple  trees  in  the  past. 

All  Knowing  Indirect. — There  is  no  way  for  the 
mind  to  get  meaning  directly  from  an  object.  The 
past  experience  must  always  come  in  as  a  factor  in 
knowing.  This  truth  has  led  psychologists  to  say 
that  all  knowing  is  indirect,  or  mediative.  That  is  to 
say  the  experience  aroused  by  any  object  is  always 
referred  to  the  past  experience,  and  this  act  of  refer- 
ring to  the  past  experience  is  the  mediative  element  in  all 
knowing.  It  is  this  act  of  reference  that  makes  the 
knowing  indirect. 

Feeling. — Every  experience  the  mind  has  changes 
it  both  temporarily  and  permanently.  It  never  is 
after  an  experience  quite  what  it  was  before  the  ex- 
perience. Some  of  these  experiences  change  the 
mind  for  the  better  and  some  change  it  for  the  worse, 
but  all  must  change  the  mind  permanently  in  some 
way.  This  change  of  the  self  by  an  experience  both 
temporary  and  permanent  is  called  tlie  value  of  an  exper- 
ience by  psychologists.  If  the  experience  is  in  har- 
mony with  the  growth  toward  self-realization,  the 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      77 

experience  has  a  positive  value  to  the  self.  If  the 
experience  is  not  in  harmony  with  the  growth  toward 
self-realization,  it  has  a  negative  value  to  the  self. 

The  mind  has  the  ability  of  being  aware,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  of  the  value  of  its  experiences 
to  itself.  That  is  to  say,  the  mind  knows  or  thinks 
it  knows,  at  least,  when  it  has  an  experience,  whether 
the  experience  is  in  harmony  or  conflict  with  its 
growth  toward  self-realization.  It  is  no  doubt  true 
that  experiences  are  unfavorable  to  the  growth  to- 
ward self  realization,  even  when  the  mind  regards 
them  as  favorable.  And  it  holds  equally  true  that  an 
experience  may  be  favorable  to  the  growth  towards 
self-realization,  yet  the  mind  regard  it  as  unfavorable. 

When  the  mind  has  an  experience,  and  becomes 
aware  of  the  value  of  this  experience  to  the  self,  the 
state  of  mind  which  arises  as  a  result  of  this  becom- 
ing aware  is  feeling. 

Feeling  is  the  state  of  mind  ivhich  results  from  the 
mind's  becoming  aware  of  the  value  of  an  experience  to 

the  self. 

An  analysis  of  this  definition  reveals  the  follow- 
ing points : 

1.  A  state  of  mind. 

2.  An  experience. 

3.  The  value  of  an  experience. 

4.  Becoming  aware. 

5.  The  self. 


78  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

By  state  of  mind  is  meant  the  disturbed  or 
agitated  condition  of  consciousness.  It  is  a  deeper 
condition  than  what  is  ordinarily  called  mental  ac- 
tivities. In  the  activity  of  a  muscle,  the  -whole  muscle 
acts  together,  but  the  individual  molecules  in  the 
muscle  act,  too.  The  activities  of  the  mind  are  anal- 
ogous to  the  activities  of  the  muscle  as  a  whole  while 
the  state  of  mind  is  analogous  to  the  molecular  action. 

Feeling  is  always  a  state,  or  condition,  of  the  mind, 
and  is  always  an  accompaniment  of  an  activity. 

An  experience,  as  before  said,  is  any  change,  or 
activity,  whatever.  It  is  the  thing  which  feeling  al- 
ways accompanies. 

The  value  of  an  experience  is  the  effect  of  the  ex- 
perience on  the  life  of  the  person.  This  effect  is  in  part 
temporary  and  in  part  permanent.  One  thing  is 
certain,  one's  experiences  organize,  build  his  char- 
acter, for  a  higher  or  lower  destiny. 

Becoming  aware  is  the  recognition  by  the  mind 
of  the  value  of  an  experience.  The  thing  become 
aware  of  is  thus  the  value  of  an  experience.  The  mind 
does  not  always  consciously  think  out  the  value  of  an 
experience,  but  it  either  consciously  or  unconsciously 
recognizes  it. 

The  self  in  the  widest  sense  includes  both  the 
body  and  the  mind.  Thus  there  are  the  physical  self 
and  the  mental  self.  The  mental  self  is  the  original 
capacity  of  the  mind  to  know,  feel,  and  will  plus  the 
effect  of  its  experiences  upon  if. 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      79 

Love,  Hate,  and  Indifference. — Love,  hate,  and  in- 
difference are  called  the  three  fundamental  forms  of 
feeling;  that  is,  all  feeling  is  one  of  the  three:  love,  or 
hate,  or  indifference. 

When  the  mind  has  an  experience  which  it  re- 
gards as  having  a  positive  value  to  the  self  the  feeling 
which  arises  is  love,  or  like.  The  definition  is  as  fol- 
lows: Love  is  the  feeling  which  arises  ivhen  the  mind 
has  an  experience  which  it  regards  as  having  a  positive 
value  to  the  self. 

If  the  mind  has  an  experience  which  it  regards 
as  having  a  negative  value  to  the  self,  the  feeling 
which  arises  is  hate,  or  dislike.  The  definition  is  as 
follows:  Hate  is  the  feeling  that  arises  when  the  mind 
has  an  experience  which  it  regards  as  having  a  negative 
value  to  the  self. 

If  the  mind  regards  the  experience  as  having 
little  or  no  value  to  the  self,  the  state  of  mind  which 
arises  is  indifference.  The  definition  is  as  follows: 
Indifference  is  that  state  of  mind  which  arises  when  the 
mind  has  an  experience  which  it  regards  as  having  little 
or  no  positive  or  negative  value  to  the  self.  There  is 
perhaps  no  such  thing  as  absolute  indifference  with 
respect  to  anything,  for  indifference  is  a  state  of 
mind  in  which  there  is  an  absence  of  feeling.  We, 
however,  have  some  feeling  with  respect  to  every- 
thing. 

The  Function  of  Feeling.—  Feeling  is  a  kind  of 
safeguard  which  nature  has  given  us.  It  urges  us  to 


80  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

act;  that  is,  feeling  is  a  spring  to  action.  It  also  urges 
us  to  avoid  experiences  which  hinder  our  develop- 
ment. 

Feeling  always  accompanies  activity.  If  the  ac- 
tivity causes  growth  in  self-realization,  a  pleasant 
feeling  accompanies  it  to  urge  us  to  repeat  the 
activity  for  the  self -development  which  it  furnishes. 
If  the  activity  hinders  growth  in  self-realization,  a 
disagreeable  feeling  accompanies  it  to  urge  us  to 
avoid  the  activity  because  of  its  hindrance  to  our  self- 
realization. 

Everything  which  one  voluntarily  does,  he  does 
because  of  feeling.  Thus  feeling  is  both  a  mainspring 
and  a  guide  in  human  action,  and  this  is  its  function. 

Willing. — Willing  is  a  complex  process  involving 
both  knowing  and  feeling,  but  characterized  by  striv- 
ing to  act  in  some  way.  The  process  of  willing 
always  begins  with  an  impulse.  Impulse  is  an  excess 
of  energy,  or  it  is  a  felt  pressure  to  act  in  some  way. 
Impulse  produces  some  sort  of  change.  The  impulse 
which  urges  the  bird  to  build  its  nest  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  typical  impulse.  There  are,  however, 
several  kinds  of  impulse.  The  thing  which  causes 
the  little  child  to  throw  his  arms  and  legs  about  in 
any  direction  before  he  has  control  of  himself  is  the 
impulse,  or  excess  of  energy.  By  a  rather  complex 
process  impulse  in  the  act  of  willing  is  changed  into 
desire.  Desire  is  a  feeling  directed  toward  something 
which  it  is  thought  will  satisfy  the  feeling.  And 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OP  THE  CHILD.     81 

desire  in  the  process  of  willing  is  changed  into  choice. 
Then,  lastly,  the  mind  directs  the  activities  toward 
the  realization  of  the  choice.  From  the  above  the  defi- 
nition for  willing  is  as  follows:  Willing  is  the  process 
in  which  the  mind  changes  impulse  into  desire ,  desire  into 
choice ,  and  in  which  the  mind  seeks  to  realize  the  choice. 

An  analysis  of  the  definition  of  willing  shows  the 
following  points  in  it: 

1.  Impulse. 

2.  Desire. 

3.  Choice. 

4.  The   process    by    which    impulse    becomes 
desire. 

5.  The  process  by  which  desire  becomes  choice. 

6.  The  process  by  which  choice  seeks  to  realize 
itself. 

Impulse  and  desire  have  been  explained.  Choice 
will  be  explained  after  the  discussion  of  point  five. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  process  by  which  im- 
pulse becomes  desire  will  show  the  following  points 
involved  in  it: 

1.  The  mind  sees  its  real  condition. 

2.  The  mind  sees  an  ideal  condition  of  itself. 

3.  The  mind  compares  these  two. 

4.  The  mind  decides  that  one  is  better  or  worse 
than  the  other. 

5.  A  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  arises. 

6.  This  feeling  becomes  desire. 


82  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Illustration. — A  student  knows  of  a  lecture,  which 
arouses  an  impulse  in  him.  He  is  at  home — his  real 
condition;  he  thinks  of  his  being  at  the  lecture — the 
ideal  condition;  he  compares  these  two;  he  decides 
that  to  be  at  the  lecture  would  be  a  better  condition 
than  to  be  at  home;  then  he  is  dissatisfied  to  be  at 
home,  and  so  desires  to  have  himself  at  the  lecture. 

The  process  in  which  the  desire  becomes  choice 
involves  what  is  called  the  conflict  of  desires.  That  is 
to  say,  there  are  more  than  one  desire  before  the 
inind  and  from  which  the  mind  must  select.  In 
the  illustration  given  the  student  probably  desired  to 
stay  at  home  and  study  his  lesson,  but  he  also  desired 
to  go  to  the  lecture.  Since  he  could  not  both  go  to 
the  lecture  and  stay  at  home,  there  was  a  conflict  of 
the  two  desires.  In  this  case  he  selects  his  desire  to 
go  to  the  lecture  and  drops  the  other  out  of  mind,  and 
this  act  of  selecting  is  the  choice.  Thus  the  thing 
chosen  is  a  desire.  An  analysis  reveals  the  following 
in  choice: 

1.  Two  or  more  desires  before  the  mind. 

2.  The  mind  compares  these. 

3.  The  mind  decides  which  is  preferable. 

4.  The  selecting   of   the   preferable   one — the 
choice. 

The  process  by  which  the  mind  seeks  to  realize 
the  choice  consists  simply  of  the  directing  of  the 
activities  to  perform  the  deed.  The  directing  is  purely 
mental,  but  the  activities  directed  may  be  either 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OP  THE  CHILD.      83 

mental  or  physical.  In  the  illustration  above,  the 
mind's  directing  the  physical  activities  of  going  to 
the  lecture  was  the  process  in  which  the  mind  was 
seeking  to  realize  the  choice. 

The  Functions  of  the  Will. — Repeated  acts  of  the 
will  result  in  the  formation  of  self-control  and  char- 
acter. So  it  is  the  function  of  willing  to  give  these 
two  things:  character  and  self-control. 

Self -control  is  of  three  kinds  -.physical,  prudential, 
and  moral.  Thus  the  function  of  the  will  is  to  give 
physical  control,  prudential  control,  moral  control,  and 
character. 

The  Study  of  the  Will. — Since  the  will  is  the  power 
by  which  the  process  of  willing  is  carried  on,  and  the 
power  can  be  studied  only  by  studying  its  activities, 
all  study  of  the  will,  no  matter  how  far  pursued,  con- 
sists only  in  elaborating  the  points  begun  here.  That 
is  to  say,  to  make  a  profound  and  intensive  study  of 
the  will  would  be  nothing  more  than  elaborating  im- 
pulse, desire,  choice,  self -control,  and  character. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  MENTAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD. 

The  Development  of  Knowing. — The  best  way  to 
study  knowing  intensively  is  to  study  its  develop- 
ment. But  the  question,  What  is  development  of 
knowing?  at  once  suggests  itself.  To  answer  this 
question  it  is  necessary  to  rethink  that  knotting  is 
grasping  the  relation  between  present  and  past  mental 
experiences.  Then  knowing  which  is  developed  only 
to  a  small  extent  is  that  knowing  in  which  but  few 
relations  are  grasped;  and  knowing  which  is  highly 
developed  is  that  knowing  in  which  many  relations 
are  grasped.  From  which  it  appears  that  develop- 
ment in  knowing  consists  in  grasping  more  and  more 
relations.  To  show  then  that  one  kind  of  knowing  is 
more  developed  than  another  kind  is  to  show  that 
more  relations  are  grasped  in  one  kind  than  in 
another. 

Illustration. — If  one  studies  a  butterfly  but  five 
minutes,  he  knows  little  about  it  because  he  has  seen 
the  butterfly  in  only  a  few  relations;  that  is,  he  has 
grasped  but  few  relations,  and  his  knowledge  of  the 
butterfly  is  but  little  developed.  Suppose  now  that 
he  studies  the  butterfly  five  months;  then  he  will 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      85 

know  much  about  it  because  he  has  seen  it  in  many 
relations;  that  is,  he  has  grasped  many  relations,  and 
his  knowledge  of  the  butterfly  is  much  developed. 
Thus  the  development  of  one's  knowledge  of  a  thing 
consists  in  grasping  more  and  more  relations.  And 
we  again  reach  the  conclusion  that  development  in 
knowing  is  gaining  in  the  number  of  relations  grasped* 

Stages  in  the  Development  of  Knowing. — As  know- 
ing develops  it  passes  through  various  stages  some- 
what analogous  to  one's  passing  through  stages  on  a 
journey.  These  stages  have  been  given  the  following 
names  by  psychologists  in  the  order  of  their  develop- 
ment: 

1.  Sense-perception. 

2.  Memory. 

3.  Imagination. 

4.  Conception. 

5.  Definition. 

6.  Judgment. 

7.  Reasoning. 

8.  Systematization. 

9.  Intuition. 

The  Basis  of  Development. — The  sensation  is  the 
basis  of  development  in  knowing;  and  it  is  likewise 
the  basis  of  development  in  feeling  and  willing. 

The  sensation  is  the  first,  most  primitive,  and 
least  developed  mental  activity  which  the  mind  ever 
has.  It  is  the  first  conscious  step  in  the  mental 


86  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

changes  succeeding  the  physical  changes.  It  helps 
to  bridge  across  from  the  physical  to  the  mental. 

If  one  places  his  hand  on  a  chestnut  burr,  it  acts 
as  a  stimulus,  which  excites  the  outer,  or  peripheral, 
nerve  ending.  This  disturbance  of  the  peripheral 
nerve  ending  extends  along  the  nerve  fiber  to  the 
brain  and  there  arouses  a  disturbance.  This  dis- 
turbance of  the  brain  is  followed  by  a  change  of  the 
mind  which  causes  a  state  of  consciousness — the 
sensation. 

From  this  it  may  be  seen  that  the  steps  leading 
up  to  the  sensation  are  the  following: 

1.  Stimulus. 

2.  Excitation  of  the  peripheral  nerve  ending. 

3.  Transmission  of  the  impulse. 

4.  Brain  change. 

5.  Corresponding  mental  change. 

6.  The  state  of  consciousness — tfie  sensation. 
The  stimulus  is  any  form  of  motion  which  comes 

in  contact  with  some  part  of  the  nervous  system. 
Thus  the  stimulus  of  hearing  is  motion  in  the  air;  the 
stimulus  of  sight  is  motion  of  the  ether;  the  stimulus 
of  touch  is  the  motion  in  the  molecules  of  matter. 

An  impulse  has  been  well  defined  as  an  excess  of 
energy.  Thus  in  the  transmission  of  the  impulse 
one  particle  of  nervous  matter  has  an  excess  of 
energy  and  strikes  against  another  particle  and 
transfers  some  of  its  energy  to  it;  and  it  in  turn 
strikes  the  next,  transferring  some  of  its  energy  to 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      87 

the  next,  and  so  on  till  the  impulse  reaches  the  brain. 
Then  the  disturbance  spreads  and  produces  the 
brain  change. 

An  induction  from  the  above  study  gives  the 
following  definition  for  the  sensation: 

The  sensation  is  a  state  of  consciousness  arising 
from  a  change  in  the  mind  corresponding  to  a  change  in 
the  orain  caused  by  some  external  stimulus. 

Students  sometimes  get  the  wrong  impression 
that  the  sensation  is  in  part  a  physical  thing.  Four 
of  the  steps  leading  to  the  sensation  are  physical,  but 
the  sensation  itself  is  a  state  of  consciousness,  and 
consciousness  is  purely  a  mental  thing. 

Classes  of  Sensations. — There  are  two  classes  of 
sensations :  general,  or  organic,  and  special. 

General,  or  organic,  sensations  are  those  which 
give  us  a  knowledge  of  the  ill-being  or  well-being  of 
our  bodies,  and  have  no  special  sense  organs.  Pain, 
fatigue,  hunger,  and  thirst  are  general  sensations. 

Special  sensations  are  those  which  mainly  give 
us  a  knowledge  of  objects  around  us,  and  have  special 
sense  organs.  Light,  sound,  odor,  and  flavor  are 
special  sensations. 

Characteristics  of  the  Sensation. — The  sensation 
has  four  characteristics  as  follows: 

1.  Quality. 

2.  Intensity. 

3.  Duration. 

4.  Local  sign. 


88  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  quality  of  sensations  is  the  main  thing  which 
enables  the  mind  to  tell  the  differences  between 
things.  The  mind  knows  hot  from  cold,  sweet  from 
sour,  rough  from  smooth,  white  from  black,  etc., 
because  of  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  its  sensa- 
tions. 

The  main  thing  which  causes  a  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  sensation  is  a  difference  in  the  quality 
of  the  stimulus. 

The  intensity  of  sensations  is  very  well  illus- 
trated by  the  difference  in  the  sensation  furnished 
by  a  light  of  ten  candle  power  and  one  of  seventy-five 
candle  power;  or  by  the  difference  in  the  sensation 
furnished  by  the  light  from  a  kerosene  lamp  and  by 
that  of  an  electric  light. 

The  main  cause  of  the  difference  in  the  intensity 
of  sensations  is  the  difference  in  the  intensity  of  the 
stimulus. 

The  duration  of  the  sensation  is  indicated  by  the 
time  during  which  it  lasts.  Thus  the  difference  be- 
tween a  half  note  and  a  whole  note  of  the  same  pitch, 
intensity,  and  quality,  is  in  their  duration.  Again, 
some  tastes  endure  for  a  long  time  while  others 
disappear  quickly. 

The  mind  is  able  through  the  sensation  to  tell 
the  point  of  application  of  the  stimulus.  Thus  when 
the  foot  is  touched  the  mind  does  not  make  the  mis- 
take of  thinking  it  is  the  face  which  is  touched.  That 
characteristic  of  the  sensation  which  enables  the 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      89 

mind  to  tell  the  point  of  application  of  the  stimulus  is 
the  local  sign. 

The  Aspects  of  the  Sensation. — If  one  would  put 
his  hand  on  a  hot  stove,  the  sensation  got  would 
(1)  enable  him  to  know  something,  (2)  give  pain, 
(3)  stimulate  him  to  act.  Thus  the  sensation  has 
three  aspects,  and  they  are  as  follows: 

1.  Intellectual. 

2.  Emotional. 

3.  Volitional. 

The  intellectual  aspect  of  the  sensation  is  that 
one  which  enables  the  mind  to  get  knowledge  from 
the  sensation.  It  furnishes  the  basis  for  the  develop- 
ment of  knowing. 

The  emotional  aspect  of  the  sensation  is  that 
aspect  which  is  pleasurable  or  painful.  It  furnishes 
the  basis  for  the  development  of  feeling. 

The  volitional  aspect  of  the  sensation  is  that 
aspect  which  urges  to  action.  It  furnishes  the  basis 
for  the  development  of  willing. 

Comparison  of  General  and  Special  Sensations. — 
The  following  points  in  the  comparison  of  general 
and  special  sensations  are  worthy  of  notice: 

1.  General  sensations  enable  the  mind  to  know 
the  well-being  or  ill-being  of  the  body,  the  special, 
mainly  the  outside  world. 

2.  General  sensations   have   no  special  sense 
organs,  but  the  special  have. 


90  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

3.  The  knowledge  got  through  general  sensa- 
tions is  vague,  while  that  obtained  through  special 
sensations  is  much  more  definite. 

4.  The  emotional  aspect  predominates  in  the 
general  sensations,  the  intellectual,  in  the  special. 

Sense-perception. — The  sensation  is  not  knowing, 
but  sense-perception,  the  first  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  knowing,  is  based  upon  and  developed  out  of 
the  sensation.  As  soon  as  the  mind  begins  to  connect 
its  sensations,  and  see  the  likeness  and  difference 
between  them,  that  is,  relate  them,  it  is  sense-perceiv- 
ing. The  sensation  itself  is  an  isolated  thing. 

Thus  sensations  are  the  material  which  the  mind 
works  up  into  knowledge  of  external  objects,  as  it 
were.  They  are  analogous  to  the  threads  which  are 
woven  into  cloth;  the  cloth  is  analogous  to  the  knowl- 
edge, and  the  weaving  process  is  analogous  to  sense- 
perceiving.  In  sense-perception  the  mind  interprets 
the  sensations;  that  is*,  gets  meaning— sees  the  like- 
ness and  difference  between  them.  We  are  now  in  a 
position  to  give  the  following  definition  for  it: 

Sense-perception  is  the  mental  process  of  inter- 
preting the  sensation  corresponding  to  some  external 
object. 

The  mind  usually  regards  its  sensations  as 
attributes  of  objects.  Thus  the  mind  regards  the 
sensation,  sour,  as  an  attribute  of  acid;  the  sensation, 
sweet,  as  an  attribute  of  sugar;  the  sensations,  green, 
red,  etc.,  as  attributes  of  objects.  It  is  in  this  way 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      91 

that  the  mind  learns  to  interpret  sensations  and  to 
know  the  corresponding  objects.  Thus  the  mind 
interprets  a  patch  of  red  color  as  a  strawberry;  a 
patch  of  blue  color  as  a  bunch  of  grapes;  a  certain 
note  as  a  bluebird,  or  a  certain  odor  as  a  clover  field. 

Classes  of  Sense  -  perception. — There  are  two 
classes  of  sense-perception  on  the  basis  of  develop- 
ment: original  sense-perception,  and  acquired  sense- 
perception. 

If  one  learns  that  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  is  hot 
by  placing  his  hand  upon  it,  he  gets  his  knowledge 
through  the  temperature  sense,  the  only  way  there  is 
of  directly  getting  such  knowledge.  At  first,  sight 
could  not  give  such  knowledge,  but  later  the  mind 
would  know  that  the  iron  is  hot  through  sight. 

The  perception  of  the  iron  as  hot  through  the 
temperature  sense  is  an  example  of  original  sense- 
perception;  its  perception  through  sight  is  an  example 
of  acquired  sense-perception. 

Original  sense-perception  is  that  kind  of  sense- 
perception  in  which  the  mind  interprets  the  sensations 
from  one  sense  without  the  aid  of  the  sensations  from 
any  other  sense. 

Acquired  sense-perception  is  that  kind  of  sense- 
perception  in  ivhich  the  mind  interprets  the  sensation 
from  one  sense  by  the  aid  of  the  sensations  from  some 
other  sense. 

The  Object  of  Sense-perception. — The  object  with 
which  sense-perception  deals  is  one  which  possesses 


92  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

marks  that  distinguish  it  from  all  other  things;  one 
which  is  external  to  the  mind;  one  which  occupies 
space,  and  one  present  in  time  and  space.  Thus  the 
object  of  sense- perception  is: 

1.  Particular. 

2.  External. 

3.  Material. 

4.  Present  in  time  and  space. 

By  present  in  time  is  meant  coexistent  with  the 
act  of  sense-perception.  And  by  present  in  space  is 
meant  in  such  a  position  as  to  furnish  a  stimulus  to 
the  senses. 

The  Percept. — Every  process  produces  some  sort 
of  a  product.  Thus  the  product  of  sense-perception 
is  called  a  percept.  The  percept  is  the  idea  of  the 
sense- perceived  object  with  its  characteristics  just 
mentioned  above.  The  definition  is  as  follows: 

The  percept  is  an  ide.a  of  a  particular,  external, 
material  object  present  in  time  and  space. 

Memory. — Every  experience  the  mind  has  leaves 
a  tendency  for  the  mind  to  act  again  a  little  more 
easily,  as  it  acted  in  that  experience.  This  tendency 
for  the  mind  to  act  again  as  it  acted  before  is  called 
retention  in  psychology.  Thus  we  learn  the  definition 
for  the  noun  to-day,  and  to-morrow  we  are  able  to 
give  it  when  called  upon;  and  we  say  we  retained  it. 
But  where  was  it  in  the  meantime?  It  remained  with 
the  mind  only  as  a  tendency.  That  is  to  say,  the 
mind  keeps  the  disposition  to  act  again  as  it  acted 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      93 

when  the  noun  was  learned.  When  the  mind  acts  an 
experience  it  has  before  acted  the  process  is  called 
reacting,  or  reproducing.  These  two  things,  retention 
and  reacting,  are  elements  of  memory.  But  there 
must  also  be  another  element.  When  the  mind  re- 
acts an  experience,  if  it  is  a  complete  process  of 
memory,  it  must  be  aware  that  the  present  ex- 
perience is  one  it  has  had  before.  This  process  of 
seeing  that  the  present  experience  is  not  a  new  one, 
but  one  the  mind  has  had  before,  is  called  identifying. 
The  present  experience  is  identified  with  the  past 
experience.  This  act  of  identifying  is  the  third 
element  in  memory.  We  are  now  in  a  position  to 
give  the  following  definition  for  memory: 

Memory  is  the  mental  process  of  retaining,  reacting, 
and  identifying  past  mental  experiences. 

As  before  said,  retention  is  the  mind's  tendency 
to  act  again  as  it  has  acted.  Just  what  this  tendency 
is  in  ultimate  analysis,  no  one  knows,  but  that  the 
disposition  to  act  again  as  it  has  acted  is  a  mark  of 
the  mind  is  very  evident. 

The  reacting  is  just  the  working  of  the  mind  as 
it  has  worked  before.  Thus  if  the  mind  thinks  that 
life  is  an  intense  struggle  to-day  and  to-morrow  thinks 
the  same  thing,  the  mind  has  reacted  a  past  ex- 
perience. 

When  one  reacts  an  experience  and  is  conscious 
that  he  has  had  this  experience  before,  he  is  identi- 
fying the  present  experience  with  the  past.  The 


94  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

identifying  element  is  absolutely  necessary  to  mem- 
ory. Without  it  the  act  could  not  be  called  one  of 
memory. 

The  Classes  of  Memory. — On  the  basis  of  develop- 
ment there  are  four  classes  of  memory,  as  follows: 

1.  Recognition. 

2.  Remembrance  of  the  Particular. 

3.  Remembrance  of  the  General. 

4.  Recollection. 

Recognition  is  the  least  developed  kind  of  mem- 
ory and  is  most  like  sense-perception,  but  it  is  a  little 
advance  in  development  over  sense-perception.  In 
recognition  the  object  is  always  present  as  it  was  in 
sense-perception,  and  the  object  is  always  particular. 
In  addition  to  reperceiving  the  object  the  mind  al- 
ways knows  that  it  is  reacting  the  activity  corre- 
sponding to  it  at  a  different  time  from  the  former 
activity  and  usually  at  a  different  place. 

Thus  the  knoioing  that  the  mind  has  perceived  the 
object  before,  the  grasping  of  more  time  relations,  and 
more  place  relations  constitute  the  advance  in  de- 
velopment of  recognition  over  sense-perception. 

Illustration. — As  one  passes  down  the  street  and 
meets  his  friends,  he  says  he  recognizes  each  one;  he 
is  using  the  term,  recognize,  just  right,  for  in  each 
case  he  is  reknowing  his  friend  in  an  act  of  recogni- 
tion. The  object,  his  friend,  is  particular,  present, 
and  is  known  to  have  been  known  before. 


THE   MENTAL  NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  95- 

Remembrance  of  the  particular  is  the  next  higher 
kind  of  memory.  In  this  kind  of  memory  the  object 
remembered  is  never  present,  but  it  is  always  a 
particular  object.  The  process  is  as  follows:  the 
mind  has  an  activity  corresponding  to  some  object 
some  element  of  which  is  like  some  previously  known 
object.  From  the  suggestion  of  this  like  element  the 
mind  reacts  the  entire  activity  appropriate  to  the 
previously  known  object,  and  thus  remembers  it. 

The  main  advance  of  remembrance  of  the  par- 
ticular over  recognition  is  that  it  enables  the  mind  to 
think  of  objects  when  they  are  not  present.  This  is 
an  immense  advance,  for  to  be  able  to  think  of  objects 
only  in  their  presence  would  detract  tremendously 
from  the  mind's  power  of  thought. 

Illustration. — One  sees  a  basket  of  fruit  sitting  in 
a  show  window.  This  makes  him  think  of  a  par- 
ticular fruit  farm  he  has  seen  in  Michigan.  From 
the  suggestion  of  the  like  element  in  the  basket  of 
fruit  the  mind  goes  ahead  and  finishes  up  the  whole 
activity  appropriate  to  the  fruit  farm  previously 
known,  and  thus  remembers  it. 

The  next  higher  kind  of  memory  is  remembrance 
of  the  general.  In  this  kind  of  memory  the  mind 
remembers  a  general  idea,  or  general  notion.  If, 
when  a  child  is  given  a  piece  of  crayon  and  told  to 
make  triangles  on  the  board,  he  is  able  to  do  so,  it  is. 
because  he  remembers  the  general  idea,  triangle. 


96  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

The  process  is  as  follows:  the  mind  has  an  ac- 
tivity corresponding  to  something  some  element  of 
which  is  like  some  element  of  the  general  idea.  From 
the  suggestion  of  the  like  element,  the  mind  rethinks 
the  general  idea,  and  thus  remembers  it. 

Illustration. — A  teacher  held  up  an  overshoe  and 
asked  the  students  what  it  put  them  in  mind  of.  A 
student  said  it  put  him  in  mind  of  a  flatboat.  The 
teacher  asked  what  one  and  the  student  said  no  par- 
ticular one.  The  student's  act  of  memory  was 
remembrance  of  tlie  general.  The  advance  of  remem- 
brance of  the  general  over  remembrance  of  the 
particular  is  that  it  enables  the  mind  to  think  of 
things  in  classes  or  generals.  This  enables  the  mind 
to  save  much  time  and  energy. 

Recollection  is  the  most  developed  kind  of  mem- 
ory. It  is  characterized  by  a  special  effort  of  the 
will  to  get  hold  of  some  associated  line  which  will 
suggest  the  thing  to  be  remembered. 

The  process  is  as  follows:  the  mind  has  an  ac- 
tivity corresponding  to  some  object  some  element  of 
which  is  missing.  The  mind  is  aware  that  there  is  a 
missing  element,  and  makes  a  special  effort  of  the 
will  to  bring  into  consciousness  some  associated  line 
to  suggest  the  missing  element.  If  it  succeeds,  the 
act  is  complete. 

Illustration. — I  see  a  flower,  but  can  not  remem- 
ber its  name — the  missing  element.  I  then  try  to 
think  where  I  saw  the  flower  before,  how  its  name 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.      97 

looked  on  the  page,  etc.,  and  thus  succeed  in  recalling 
its  name. 

A  gentleman  stepped  into  a  store  and  saw  a  man 
whose  face  seemed  familiar,  but  could  not  remember 
his  name  or  where  he  had  seen  him  before.  He  then 
made  an  effort  to  get  hold  of  some  associated  line  to 
suggest  the  name  and  circumstances  under  which  he 
had  been  known.  He  went  back  to  the  different 
places  in  which  his  life  had  been  spent  for  five  years 
and  thus  remembered  the  missing  elements. 

The  advance  of  recollection  over  the  other  kinds 
of  memory  is  in  (1)  the  effort  involved;  (2)  the  number 
of  relations  grasped.  In  the  effort  to  get  hold  of  some 
associated  line  to  suggest  the  missing  element  more 
relations  are  grasped  than  in  any  other  kind  of 
memory. 

The  Law  of  Memory. — There  is  but  one  law  of 
memory,  and  it  is  as  follows:  The  mind  remembers 
things  wholly  through  their  associations.  Thus,  if 
when  one  sees  a  thistle,  Scotland  comes  into  mind,  it 
is  because  the  thistle  and  Scotland  have  been  asso- 
ciated in  that  mind;  if  one  remembers  France  when 
he  sees  the  lily,  it  is  because  France  and  the  lily  have 
been  associated. 

Association. — But  the  question,  What  is  associa- 
tion? at  once  suggests  itself.  When  one  looks  at  the 
word,  dog,  the  idea,  dog,  comes  into  consciousness. 
This  occurs  because  the  idea  of  the  word,  dog,  and 
the  idea,  dog,  have  been  held  in  consciousness  at  the 


98  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

same  time;  also,  if  two  or  more  things  have  been  held 
in  consciousness  in  close  succession,  they  will  suggest 
each  other.  Thus  it  appears  that  association  is  noth- 
ing more  than  the  process  of  holding  two  or  more 
things  in  consciousness  at  the  same  time  or  in  close 
succession.  The  following  is  the  formal  definition 
for  it: 

Association  is  the  mental  process  of  holding  two  or 
more  things  in  consciousness  at  the  same  time  or  in  close 
succession. 

Laios  of  Association. — There  are  two  classes  of 
laws  of  association:  primary,  and  secondary. 

The  primary  law  of  association  explains  why 
ideas  succeed  one  another  at  all  in  consciousness. 
The  secondary  laws  explain  why,  when  several  ideas 
have  been  associated  with  an  idea,  it  suggests  one  in 
preference  to  another.  Thus,  if  ideas  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
and  7  have  been  associated  with  idea  x,  when  x  comes 
into  consciousness,  why  will  idea  5  come  into  con- 
sciousness rather  than  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  or  7?  The  secon- 
dary laws  explain  this. 

The  Primary  Law  Stated. — The  following  is  the 
statement  for  the  primary  law  of  association:  When 
two  or  more  things  have  been  lield  in  consciousness  at  the 
same  time  or  in  close  succession  and  one  is  afterward 
presented,  it  is  the  tendency  for  the  other  or  others  to 
come  into  consciousness. 

The  Secondary  Laws  Stated. — The  secondary  laws 
are  five  in  number  and  are  as  follows: 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.     99 

1.  The  law  of  correlation:     Those  tilings  held  to- 
gether in  consciousness  with  the  most  essential  likeness 
are,  other  things  equal,  the  most  strongly  associated. 

2.  The  law  of  repetition:     Those  things  held  to- 
gether in  consciousness  the  most  frequently  are,  other 
things  equal,  the  most  strongly  associated. 

3.  The    law    of    emotional    preference:      Those 
things  held  together  in  consciousness  with  the  highest 
degree  of  feeling  are,  other  things  equal,  the  most  strong- 
ly associated. 

4.  The  law  of  voluntary  attention:     Those  things 
held  together  in  consciousness  with  the  highest  degree  of 
attention  are,    other   things   equal,    the  most  strongly 
associated. 

5.  The   law   of   recentness:      Those  things  held 
together  in  consciousness  the  most  recently  are,  other 
things  equal,  the  most  strongly  associated. 

The  law  of  correlation  may  be  illustrated  as  fol- 
lows: if  Bonaparte  and  Alexander  have  been  asso- 
ciated at  one  time,  and  Bonaparte  and  Newton  at 
another  time,  when  Bonaparte  comes  into  mind, 
according  to  the  law  of  correlation,  Alexander  would 
come  to  mind  in  preference  to  Newton.  This  would 
be  true,  because  there  are  more  essential  likenesses 
between  Bonaparte  and  Alexander  than  there  are 
between  Bonaparte  and  Newton. 

The  law  of  repetition  may  be  illustrated  as  fol- 
lows :  if  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  Thomas 
Jefferson  have  been  held  together  in  consciousness 


100  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

more  often  than  the  Louisiana  Purchase  and  Thomas 
Jefferson,  when  Thomas  Jefferson  comes  into  con- 
sciousness the  Declaration  of  Independence  will 
^appear  in  preference  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 

The  following  will  illustrate  the  law  of  emotional 
preference:  a  boy  was  crossing  a  bridge  on  horseback, 
when  a  broken  board  flew  up  at  one  end  because  of 
the  horse's  stepping  upon  it  at  the  other  end.  The 
•horse  becoming  frightened  at  this  jumped  and  fell  at 
full  length  off  the  end  of  the  bridge  into  the  mud  and 
i^ater  some  eight  or  ten  feet  below.  Now  when  this 
boy  sees  a  broken  board  in  a  bridge,  he  thinks  of 
this  incident  in  preference  to  other  things,  because 
of  the  high  degree  of  feeling  connected  with  it. 

The  following  illustrates  the  law  of  voluntary 
attention:  if  a  friend  walks  past  one  holding  a  vase  in 
his  hand  and  one  gives  him  careful  attention  on  one 
day  and  on  a  second  day  the  same  friend  carrying  a 
book  passes  one  and  is  given  only  slight  attention, 
when  the  friend  comes  into  consciousness  the  vase  will 
appear  in  consciousness  in  preference  to  the  book. 

The  illustration  of  the  law  of  recentness  is  as 
follows:  if  one  has  recently  been  reading  of  the 
numerous  dogs  of  Constantinople,  and  before  this 
has  read  the  Mohammedan's  call  to  prayer,  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  recentness,  when  Constantinople 
comes  into  consciousness  its  numerous  dogs  will 
appear  in  consciousness  in  preference  to  the  call  to 
prayer. 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OP   THE  CHILD.  101 

Imagination. — The  mind  has  the  ability  of  getting 
ideas  and  then  of  putting  these  ideas  into  mental 
images,  or  pictures.  If  one  tells  you  to  shut  your 
eyes  and  look  at  the  following  described  apple  with 
the  mind's  eye,  the  process  of  forming  the  picture  of 
it  is  imagining: 

A  large  dark-red  apple,  three  inches  in  diameter, 
almost  spherical,  with  a  rotten  spot  as  large  as  a 
finger  nail  on  one  side,  and  a  worm  hole  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  is  lying  on  a  platter  sitting  on  a  stand  in  the- 
center  of  a  room. 

The  pictures  formed  by  the  imagination  may  be 
almost  like  objects  which  have  been  seen  or  they  may 
be  almost  entirely  changed;  that  is,  highly  idealized. 
It  makes  no  difference  how  much  they  are  idealized 
the  imagination  still  depends  upon  the  memory  for 
the  material  for  its  images.  The  Ancients  imagined 
a  huge  dog,  Cerberus,  with  three  immense  heads, 
whose  body  bristled  with  snakes  in  the  place  of 
hairs,  and  whose  barking  resembled  peals  of  thunder, 
as  the  guardian  of  Hades.  There  is  nothing  new  in 
this  picture  but  the  combination.  They  were  familiar 
with  dogs,  heads,  snakes,  and  peals  of  thunder.  The 
only  new  thing  is  the  combination.  What  is  true  of 
this  case  is  true  of  all  cases  of  imagination.  Imagi- 
nation is  thus  dependent  upon  sense-perception  and 
memory  for  the  material  which  it  builds  into  its 
images.  The  image  made  by  imagination  is  always  a 
particular  thing;  that  is,  the  mind  regards  it  as. 
separate  from  all  other  things. 


102  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

From  the  foregoing  the  definition  of  imagination 
is  as  follows:  Imagination  is  the  mental  process  of  em- 
bodying an  idea  in  a  particular  form,  or  image. 

The  Advance  in  Development  of  Imagination  over 
Memory. — If  one  should  study  a  vase  for  one  hour  and 
then  go  to  another  room  and  attempt  to  draw  it,  he 
would  find  many  places  which  he  would  not  quite 
remember.  Imagination  enables  one  to  fill  out  these 
places  in  a  picture  where  memory  fails  him.  Thus 
imagination  fills  up  the  discrepancies  of  memory. 

Sense-perception  confines  the  mind  strictly  to 
the  present  time;  memory  enables  the  mind  to  know 
past  time,  but  it  is  only  the  imagination  which  en- 
ables the  mind  to  know  future  time  and  to  project 
itself  into  the  future.  This  enables  the  mind  to  set 
up  ideals  and  to  plan  for  the  future. 

The  integrity  of  the  act  of  memory  depends  up- 
on the  accuracy  of  the  reproduction.  Thus  the  mind 
regards  itself  as  remembering  well  or  poorly  accord- 
ingly as  it  reproduces  accurately  or  inaccurately. 
This  is  not  the  case  with  the  imagination.  In  acts  of 
imagination  the  mind  knows  its  freedom  in  changing 
or  idealizing.  The  imagination  is  thus  a  much  freer 
activity  of  the  mind  than  memory. 

These  three  advances  of  imagination  in  develop- 
ment over  memory  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  The  imagination  fills  out  the  incompleteness 
in  acts  of  memory  and  thus  enables  the  mind  to  think 
of  objects  as  complete  wholes. 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OP  THE  CHILD.  103 

2.  The  imagination  enables  the  mind  to  grasp 
future  time  and  thus  to  project  itself  into  the  future. 

3.  The  imagination  is  much  freer  than  memory 
in  its  idealizing  activity. 

Classes  of  Imagination. — On  the  basis  of  develop- 
ment there  are  three  classes  of  imagination:  repro- 
ductive^ mechanical,  and  creative. 

Reproductive  imagination  is  the  least  developed 
kind  of  imagination.  It  is  but  a  small  advance  in 
development  over  memory.  If  one  should  study  a 
tree  on  the  lawn  for  an  hour,  then  go  to  his  room  and 
draw  it  the  image  produced  would  be  as  nearly  literal 
as  possible;  that  is,  as  nearly  an  accurate  represen- 
tation of  the  tree  as  possible.  The  kind  of  imagina- 
tion employed  would  be  the  reproductive. 

The  definition  is  as  follows:  Reproductive  im- 
agination is  that  kind  of  imagination  which  forms 
images  as  nearly  literal  as  possible. 

The  mechanical  imagination  is  the  next  higher 
kind.  It  is  that  kind  of  imagination  which  makes 
images  by  arbitrarily  separating  or  combining  parts 
of  images  of  the  reproductive  imagination.  If  the 
wings  of  birds  are  combined  with  the  forms  of  cows, 
the  image  is  the  result  of  the  mechanical  imagination, 
or  if  the  head  of  a  man  is  imaged  floating  through 
space,  it  is  the  work  of  the  mechanical  imagination. 

The  following  is  the  definition:  Mechanical  im- 
agination is  that  kind  of  imagination  which  forms 


104  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

images  by  arbitrarily  separating  or  putting  together 
images  of  the  reproductive  imagination. 

The  creative  imagination  is  the  highest  kind.  It 
is  also  called  constructive,  inventive,  and  scientific 
imagination.  In  this  kind  of  imagination  the  mind 
fashions  the  material  which  it  builds  into  an  image  to 
suit  its  purpose.  It  is  the  kind  used  in  all  the  crea- 
tions of  man,  as  a  bridge,  a  bicycle,  an  automobile,  a 
house,  a  poem,  etc.  It  is  purposive  to  a  high  degree. 
The  entire  image  in  this  kind  of  imagination  is  a 
product  highly  idealized  and  made  up  of  smaller 
images  which  have  also  been  idealized  to  suit  the 
mind's  purpose. 

The  definition  is  as  follows:  Creative  imagi- 
nation is  that  kind  of  imagination  tvhich  builds  up  com- 
plex images  made  by  adapting  the  images  of  reproductive 
and  mechanical  imagination. 

Conception. — In  order  to  know  any  object  the 
mind  must  see  it  in  both  its  particular  and  universal 
aspects — must  see  what  distinguishes  it  from  all 
other  things  and  also  what  connects  it  with  other 
things.  Some  of  the  stages  of  knowing  emphasize 
one  aspect  of  objects  and  some  the  other.  Thus 
in  sense-perception,  memory,  and  imagination  the 
mind  emphasizes  the  particular  aspects  of  objects, 
but  in  conception,  definition,  judgment,  reasoning,  and 
systematization  the  mind  emphasizes  the  universal 
aspects  of  objects. 


THE   MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD. 


Sense-perception,  memory,  and  imagination  deal 
with  particular  ideas.  Conception,  too,  deals  with  an 
idea,  but  not  a  particular  idea.  It  deals  with  what  is. 
called  a  general  idea,  or  general  notion.  But  what 
is  a  general  idea,  or  notion?  If  one  should  set  out  to 
examine  triangles,  he  would  find  that  every  triangle: 
1.  Is  a  polygon.  2.  Has  just  three  sides.  3.  Ha& 
just  three  angles.  He  would  also  find  that  each  one 
has  several  attributes  not  found  in  all  the  others,  and 
that  each  one  has  some  attributes  not  found  in  any  of 
the  others.  These  last  two  kinds  of  attributes  are 
necessary  to  the  triangle,  but  do  not  enter  into  the 
general  idea  of  the  triangle.  The  general  idear 
triangle,  is  made  up  of  ideas,  one,  two,  and  three  above* 
That  is  to  say,  it  is  made  up  of  those  attributes  that 
could  be  found  in  any  triangle.  The  following  is  the 
definition  for  a  general  idea: 

A  general  idea  is  an  idea  ivhich  corresponds  to  th& 
common  attributes  of  a  class  of  objects. 

The  terms,  concept,  general  idea,  and  general" 
notion,  all  have  the  same  meaning.  This  should  be 
remembered.  The  process  in  which  concepts  are 
formed  is  conception,  and  the  definition  is  as  followsr 

Conception  is  the  mind's  process  of  forming  an  idea 
which  corresponds  to  the  common  attributes  of  a  class  of 
objects. 

Method  of  Forming  Concepts  in  Actual  Life.  —  In 
actual  life  concepts  are  formed  as  follows  :  first,  the 
mind  perceives  an  object  of  a  class  for  the  first  time 


106  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

and  gets  a  sort  of  tentative  concept  which  usually 
contains  attributes  not  possessed  by  all  the  objects  of 
the  class;  secondly,  the  mind  perceives  other  objects 
of  this  kind  and  begins  to  drop  from  the  concept  any 
attributes  which  are  not  common  and  perhaps  to  add 
some  common  attributes  not  at  first  perceived;  this 
process  of  changing  the  concept  because  of  further 
experience  is  continued  until  just  those  attributes 
which  belong  to  every  object  of  the  class  remain. 

Illustration. — The  mind  naturally  gets  its  general 
ideas  from  the  study  of  particulars.  Suppose  the 
first  barn  a  child  sees  is  a  square  one,  painted  red, 
Tvith  roof  sloping  but  one  way,  and  containing  only 
hay  and  corn.  From  this  particular  the  mind's  idea 
of  barn  will  contain  square  form,  red  color,  this  par- 
ticular kind  of  roof,  and  fdled  with  hay  and  corn.  To 
be  brief,  the  mind  from  the  study  of  particulars  goes 
on  correcting  its  idea  of  barn  by  dropping  out 
elements,  and  possibly  adding  some,  until  just  those 
attributes  remain  which  are  possessed  in  common  by 
barns. 

This  is  the  way  the  mind  naturally  gets  its  con- 
cepts in  life.  When  it  examines  the  first  particular, 
it  forms  a  tentative,  or  trial,  concept.  But  it  goes  on 
and  examines  other  particulars  to  correct  this  ten- 
tative concept.  It  should  be  noted  carefully  that  the 
mind  naturally  examines  the  real,  particular  object 
of  which  it  forms  its  concepts. 

The  Logical  Steps  in  Conception. — The  following 
are  the  logical  steps  in  an  act  of  conception: 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  107 

1.  The  mind  acts  an  activity  appropriate  to  a 
particular  object  by  thinking  several  of  its  attributes. 

2.  The  mind  repeats  this  process  with  other 
similar  objects. 

3.  The  mind  compares  and  contrasts  these  ob- 
jects. 

4.  The  mind  abstracts  the  common  attributes 
by  holding  them  in  consciousness  and  dropping  more 
or  less  from  consciousness  the  others. 

5.  The  mind  generalizes  by  extending  the  com- 
mon attributes  of  the  particulars  studied  out  to  all 
objects  of  the  class. 

6.  The  mind  thinks  the  name  of  the  class. 

The  first  two  steps  may  be  put  together,  thus 
making  but  five  steps  as  follows:  (1)  the  examination 
of  particulars;  (2)  comparison  and  contrast;  (3)  ab- 
straction; (4)  generalization;  (5)  denomination. 

The  Aspects  of  the  Concept. — The  concept  has  two 
aspects:  intension,  and  extension,  or  intent  and  extent. 

When  the  mind  thinks  the  general  idea,  triangle, 
it  thinks  the  common  attributes  which  make  up  the 
idea,  but  it  also  thinks  of  the  particular  objects  to 
which  the  concept  applies.  In  the  first  case  the  mind 
is  thinking  of  the  intension,  intent,  or  content — these 
terms  all  have  the  same  meaning — of  the  concept. 
In  the  second  case  the  mind  is  thinking  of  the  ex- 
tension, or  extent,  of  the  concept.  The  following  are 
statements  for  these  two  aspects  of  the  concept: 
The  intension  of  a  concept  is  that  aspect  of  the  concept 


108  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

which  refers  to  the  number  of  common  attributes  in  it. 
The  extension  of  a  concept  is  that  aspect  of  the  concept 
which  refers  to  the  number  of  particular  objects  to  which 
it  applies. 

Definition. — The  popular  notion  of  definition  is 
that  it  is  some  sort  of  formal  statement,  either  oral 
or  written,  to  be  learned  and  remembered.  But 
definition  in  its  essential  nature  is  a  mental  process, 
and  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  regarded  a  stage  in  the 
development  of  knowing. 

An  examination  of  how  the  mind  naturally  forms 
a  definition  will  reveal  the  nature  of  the  process. 

Let  the  thing  to  be  defined  be  the  triangle.  The 
mind  examines  a  particular  triangle,  noting  its  at- 
tributes; then  it  examines  a  second  triangle,  noting 
its  attributes;  then  a  third,  and  so  on.  The  mind 
compares  these  various  particular  triangles  and 
selects  out  their  common  attributes.  It  finds  them 
as  follows: 

1.  The  triangle  is  a  polygon. 

2.  It  has  three  sides. 

3.  It  has  three  angles. 

The  mind  now  makes  a  synthesis  of  these  com- 
mon truths  of  triangles  in  the  form  of  a  thought, 
which  gives  the  following:  A  triangle  is  a  polygon 
having  three  sides  and  three  angles.  This,  it  is  evident, 
is  a  definition  of  the  triangle,  and  the  mind's  process 
of  arriving  at  this  mental  product  is  the  mental 
process  of  definition. 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OP   THE  CHILD.  109 

From  the  above  the  following  definition  of  defini- 
tion is  reached: 

Definition  is  the  mind's  process  of  making  a  syn- 
thesis of  the  common  attributes  of  a  class  of  objects  in  the 
form  of  a  thought. 

For  instance,  the  mind  examines  several  par- 
ticular nouns  in  sentences,  and  sees  the  following 
truths  of  each  one: 

1.  It  is  a  substantive  word. 

2.  It  names  the  object  which  it  expresses. 

The  mind  makes  a  synthesis  of  these  truths  as 
follows:  A  noun  is  a  substantive  word  which  names  its 
object.  But  this  defines  the  noun. 

In  making  a  definition  the  mind  takes  the  follow- 
ing steps: 

1.  It  thinks  the  name  of  the  thing  to  be  defined. 

2.  It  puts   the   thing  to   be  denned   in   the   next  larger 
known  class. 

3.  It  sets  the  thing  to  be  defined  off  from  all  other  things 
of  this  class. 

For  instance,  in  the  definition  of  the  sentence, 
"The  sentence  is  that  language  unit  which  expresses  a 
thought,"  "The  sentence"  names  what  is  to  be  defined; 
"is  that  language  unit"  puts  the  thing  to  be  defined 
into  the  class,  language  units,  the  next  known  class 
larger  than  the  sentence;  and  "which  expresses  a 
thought"  sets  the  sentence  off  from  the  other  things 
of  the  class,  the  word  and  discourse. 

The  thing  defined  is  always  a  class.  When  the 
mind  defines  a  prism,  the  definition  is  not  for  some 


110  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

particular  prism,  but  it  is  for  the  class,  prism.  Thus, 
a  definition  must  include  all  the  particulars  of  the 
class  to  be  defined.  That  is  to  say,  it  must  be  in- 
clusive. The  definition  must  also  exclude  everything 
except  the  particulars  of  the  class  defined;  that  is,  it 
must  be  exclusive. 

The  mind's  natural  mode  of  defining  is  thus  as 
follows: 

I1.     The  mind  examines  particular  objects  of  the 
class  to  be  defined. 

21.     The  mind  selects  out  the  common  attributes 
of  these  particular  objects. 

31.     The  mind  makes  a  synthesis  of  these  com- 
mon attributes  in  the  form  of  a  thought  by: 

1*.     Thinking   the    name  of    the  class   to  be 
defined. 

2*.     Putting  the  thing  to  be  defined  into  the 
next  larger  known  class. 

3a.     Setting  the  thing  to  be  defined  off  from  all 
other  things  of  that  class. 

Laws  of  Definition. — Thus   to  guide  in  making 
definitions  the  following  laws  may  be  formulated: 

1.  Name  the  thing  to  be  defined. 

2.  Put  the  thing  to  be  defined  into  the  next  larger 
known  class. 

3.  Set  the  thing  to  be  defined  off  from  all  other 
thmgs  of  that  class. 

Judgment. — The    mind    gets    particular    ideas 
through  sense-perception,  and  general  ideas  through 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OP   THE  CHILD.  Ill 

conception.  In  judgment  the  mind  grasps  and  em- 
phasizes the  relation  between  ideas.  For  example,, 
the  mind  of  man  had  an  idea,  coal,  and  the  idea,  fuel* 
for  years  before  it  ever  grasped  the  relation  between 
those  ideas.  When  at  last  it  did,  it  asserted  that  coal 
is  a  fuel.  This  process  of  grasping  the  relation  be- 
tween the  idea,  coal,  and  the  idea,  fuel,  and  asserting^ 
it  is  the  mind's  process  of  judging.  Thus  the  defini- 
tion of  judgment  is  as  follows: 

Judgment  is  the  mind's  process  of  grasping  the 
relation  between  ideas  and  asserting  it. 

The  product  of  an  act  of  sense-perception  is  a 
percept;  of  an  act  of  conception,  a  concept;  of  an  act  of 
definition,  a  definition;  of  an  act  of  judgment,  a  judg- 
ment. 

Every  judgment  is  expressed  by  a  sentence,  if 
expressed  at  all.  Thus  the  sentence  is  the  symbol  of 
the  judgment.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the  sentence 
expresses  the  thought,  and  this  is  right,  because  the 
thought  and  the  judgment  mean  precisely  the  same 
thing. 

The  sentence,  then,  bears  the  relation  to  the 
judgment  of  the  symbol  to  the  thing  symbolized.  And 
the  judgment  bears  the  relation  to  the  sentence  of  the 
thing  symbolized  to  the  symbol. 

The  act  of  judging  is  a  triple  activity  of  the  mind; 
that  is,  a  one  act  made  up  of  three.  The  following 
are  the  steps  in  judging: 

1.     The  mind  acts  some  idea. 


112  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

2.  The  mind  acts  a  second  idea  related  to  the 
first. 

3.  The  mind  grasps  and  asserts  the  relation  be- 
tween these  ideas. 

The  Elements  of  the  Judgment. — Since  there  are 
three  activities  in  making  every  judgment,  there 
are  three  essential  elements  in  every  judgment:  the 
psychical  subject,  the  psychical  predicate,  and  the  psy- 
chical copula.  The  following  are  definitions  for  them: 

The  psychical  subject  is  the  idea  of  the  object  about 
which  something  is  asserted. 

The  psychical  predicate  is  the  idea  of  that  which 
is  asserted  about  the  object  of  which  the  subject  of  the 
judgment  is  the  idea. 

The  psychical  copula  is  the  idea  of  the  relation 
^between  the  subject  of  the  judgment  and  the  predicate  of 
the  judgment. 

The  Two  Aspects  of  Judgments. — Judgments  have 
two  aspects:  intension  and  extension.  The  inten- 
sion and  extension  of  judgments  are  not  so  much 
two  separate  things  as  the  two  different  aspects  of 
the  same  thing.  Thus  every  judgment  is  at  one  time 
both  a  judgment  of  intension  and  extension.  If  the 
mind  thinks  man  is  an  animal,  it  may  refer  the  sub- 
ject, the  idea,  man,  to  the  predicate,  the  idea,  animal, 
with  the  idea  of  extending  or  universalizing  the 
subject,  for  animal  is  a  larger  class  than  man.  In 
this  case  the  judgment  is  one  of  extension.  But  if  the 
mind  refers  the  predicate,  the  idea,  animal,  to  the  sub- 


THE   MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.  113 

ject,  the  idea,  man,  with  the  idea  of  enriching  the 
subject  in  meaning  by  adding  the  element  of  animal 
to  it,  the  judgment  is  one  of  intension. 

Reasoning. — In  judgment  the  mind  emphasizes 
the  relation  between  ideas.  In  reasoning  it  empha- 
sizes the  relation  among  judgments.  In  every  act  of 
reasoning  there  are  three  judgments  involved,  so 
related  that  the  last  is  reached  because  of  its  relation 
to  the  other  two.  Thus  having  the  two  judgments, 
"Man  is  mortal,"  and  "William  is  a  man,"  the  mind 
reaches  the  third  judgment,  "William  is  mortal,"  and 
this  process  of  the  mind  is  reasoning.  The  definition 
is  as  follows: 

Reasoning  is  the  mind's  process  of  reaching  a  judg- 
ment because  of  its  relation  to  two  preceding  judgments. 

The  Classes  of  Reasoning. — There  are  different 
classes  of  reasoning  depending  upon  the  basis  chosen. 
Often  the  mind  produces  a  judgment  when  it  is  not 
at  all  conscious  that  this  judgment  is  reached  be- 
cause of  its  relation  to  two  preceding  judgments,  but 
an  analysis  always  shows  that  the  two  preceding 
judgments  are  implied,  though  not  in  consciousness. 
Thus  there  are  two  kinds  of  reasoning  from  the 
standpoint  of  whether  all  three  of  the  judgments  are 
in  consciousness.  Thus  when  the  mind  thinks  This 
day  is  rainy,  it  has  as  a  rule,  in  consciousness  only 
this  one  judgment.  An  analysis  shows  that  the  two 
judgments,  rainy  days  have  certain  characteristics;  and 
this  day  has  these  characteristics;  are  implied,  however. 


114  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Then  again,  the  mind  in  reasoning  examines  par- 
ticular objects  and  reasons  that  what  is  true  of  these 
is  true  of  the  whole  class;  that  is,  it  goes  from  the 
examination  of  particulars  to  a  general  truth.  Also 
the  mind  may  start  with  a  general  truth  and  reason 
that  what  is  true  of  the  whole  class  must  be  true  of 
the  particular  objects  of  that  class.  Thus  from  the 
standpoint  of  whether  the  mind  goes  from  particulars 
to  the  general  or  from  the  general  to  particulars 
there  are  two  classes  of  reasoning. 

Implicit  and  Explicit  Reasoning. — On  the  basis  of 
whether  the  mind  has  in  consciousness  all  three 
judgments  there  are  two  classes  of  reasoning:  im- 
plicit, and  explicit. 

Implicit  reasoning  is  the  kind  of  reasoning  in 
which  one  or  more  of  the  judgments  are  not  in  conscious- 
ness. 

Explicit  reasoning  is  the  kind  of  reasoning  in 
which  the  mind  has  all  the  judgments  in  consciousness. 

Inductive  and  Deductive  Reasoning. — On  the  basis 
of  whether  the  mind  goes  from  the  particular  to  the 
general  or  from  the  general  to  the  particular  there 
are  two  classes  of  reasoning:  inductive  and  deductive. 

Inductive  reasoning  is  that  kind  of  reasoning  in 
which  the  mind  goes  from  truths  of  particular  objects  to 
general  truths. 

Ex.— This  object  is  an  animal. 

This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 
Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  115 

Deductive  reasoning  is  that  kind  of  reasoning  in 
which  the  mind  goes  from  general  truths  to  truths  of 
particular  objects. 

Ex. — Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 
This  object  is  an  animal. 
This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 

The  Syllogism. — In  every  act  of  reasoning  there 
are  three  judgments,  or  propositions.  These  three 
judgments,  or  propositions,  taken  together  are  called 
the  syllogism.  Thus  the  syllogism  may  be  characterized 
as  follows: 

The  syllogism  is  the  formal  act  of  reasoning  con- 
sisting of  three  judgments,  or  propositions. 

Of  the  three  judgments  which  compose  the  syllo- 
gism the  first  two  are  called  the  premises,&ud  the  last 
one,  the  conclusion. 

There  are  in  each  syllogism  also  three  terms:  the 
major  term,  the  minor  term,  and  the  middle  term.  These 
may  be  known  from  their  position  in  the  judgments. 
The  predicate  of  the  conclusion  is  invariably  the  major 
term;  the  subject  of  the  conclusion,  the  minor  term, 
and  the  term  found  in  both  the  premises  but  not 
found  in  the  conclusion  is  the  middle  term. 

The  premises  are  called  major  or  minor  depend- 
ing upon  which  term  is  found  in  them,  the  major 
term  being  always  found  in  the  major  premise,  and 
the  minor  term,  in  the  minor  premise. 

Thus  in  the  syllogism, — 
This  object  is  an  animal. 


116  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 

Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 

"have  voluntary  motion"  is  the  major  term;  "Ani- 
mals" is  the  minor  term;  and  "This  object"  is  the 
middle  term.  Also,  "Animals  have  voluntary  motion " 
is  the  conclusion.  "This  object  has  voluntary  mo- 
tion" is  the  major  premise,  and  "This  object  is  an 
animal"  is  the  minor  premise. 

The  arrangement  of  the  judgments  in  a  certain 
order  is  called  a  figure  of  the  syllogism.  There  are 
said  to  be  three  figures  of  the  syllogism,  as  follows: 

I. 

Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 

This  object  is  an  animal. 

This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 

II. 

Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 
This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 
This  object  is  an  animal. 

III. 

This  object  is  an  animal. 
This  object  has  voluntary  motion. 
Animals  have  voluntary  motion. 

The  first  figure  of  the  syllogism  is  employed  by 
the  mind  in  deduction;  the  second,  in  identification;  and 
the  third,  in  induction. 

Systematization. — In  judgment  the  mind  grasps 
the  relation  between  ideas;  in  reasoning,  between 
judgments;  and  in  systematization,  between  complete 
acts  of  reasoning.  Thus  by  systematization  the 


THE  MENTAL   NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.  117 

mind  connects  all  the  truths  of  plant  life  into  a  com- 
plete system — the  science  of  botany;  also,  all  the 
truths  of  animal  life  into  the  science,  zoology. 

Systematization  is  the  mind's  process  of  grasping 
the  relation  between  complete  acts  of  reasoning. 

Intuition. — To  know  any  object  completely  is  to 
know  it  in  both  its  particular  and  universal  aspects; 
that  is,  (1)  to  know  it  as  distinct  from  other  objects, 
(2)  as  connected  with  other  objects. 

In  the  stages  in  the  development  of  knowing 
from  sense-perception  to  imagination,  inclusive,  the 
mind  emphasizes  the  particular  aspects  of  known 
objects;  but  in  the  development  of  knowing  from 
conception  to  systematization,  inclusive,  the  mind  em- 
phasizes the  universal  aspects  of  objects.  Thus  in  no 
stage  of  knowing  from  sense-perception  to  systema- 
tization  does  the  mind  grasp  an  object  with  equal 
emphasis  upon  both  its  particular  and  universal 
aspects.  This  it  does  in  the  highest  stage  of  know- 
ing, intuition.  Intuition  in  its  fullness  is  thus 
knowing  an  object  completely,  and  is  thus  the  end  of 
the  development  of  knowing.  It  may  be  defined  as 
follows: 

Intuition  is  the  mind's  process  of  implicitly  grasp- 
ing an  object  with  equal  emphasis  upon  both  its  particular 
and  universal  aspects. 

Intuition  is  rational  insight. 

The  Distinguishing  Element  in  the  Stages  of  Know- 
ing.— By  the  distinguishing  element  in  the  stages  of 


118  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

knowing  is  meant  that  element  which  makes  any 
stage  different  from  any  other  stage,  and  by  which 
any  stage  may  be  known. 

The  distinguishing  element  in  sense-perception 
is  the  interpreting  the  sensations;  in  memory,  the  iden- 
tifying activity;  in  imagination,  the  free  imaging  activ- 
ity of  the  mind;  in  conception,  the  grasping  tJie  class 
common  attributes;  in  definition,  the  synthesis  of  the 
common  truths  of  a  class;  in  judgment,  the  grasping  the 
relation  between  ideas;  in  reasoning,  the  grasping 
the  relation  between  judgments;  in  systematization,  the 
grasping  the  relation  among  complete  acts  of  reasoning; 
in  intuition,  the  equality  of  empliasis  on  both  aspects  of 
an  object,  the  particular  and  universal. 

The  Advance  in  the  Stages  of  Knowing. — The  sen- 
sation in  itself  is  an  isolated  thing.  In  sense-percep- 
tion the  mind  relates  the  sensations  and  grasps  the 
likeness  and  difference  between  them.  Its  advance 
over  the  sensation  is  in  grasping  the  relation  between 
the  sensations.  In  original  sense-perception,  the  least 
developed  kind,  the  mind  interprets  the  sensations 
from  only  one  sense,  that  one  which  was  evidently 
designed  to  give  sensations  of  one  particular  kind. 
In  the  acquired  sense-perception,  the  most  developed 
kind,  more  than  one  sense  is  involved,  and  thus  more 
relations  are  grasped  and  the  process  is  more  com- 
plex— more  developed. 

In  memory,  the  second  stage  of  knowing,  the 
mind  grasps  more  time  and.  place  relations  than  in 


THE  MENTAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD.  119 

sense-perception.  In  sense-perception  the  mind  can 
deal  with  only  present,  in  time  and  space,  objects. 
Thus  it  is  a  great  advance  to  be  able  to  think  of  objects 
not  present  in  either  time  or  space. 

Recognition,  the  lowest  kind  of  memory,  is  a 
very  small  advance  over  sense-perception,  merely 
more  time  relations  grasped. 

Remembrance  of  the  particular  is  an  advance 
over  recognition  in  that  the  object  is  never  present — 
more  place  relations  grasped. 

In  remembrance  of  the  general  the  mind  ad- 
vances to  the  grasping  of  general  relations.  The  mind 
deals  with  particular  ideas  in  both  recognition  and 
remembrance  of  the  particular,  but  with  a  general 
idea  in  remembrance  of  the  general. 

In  recollection,  the  highest  kind  of  memory,  the 
advance  is  in  the  effort  of  the  will  involved  and  in  the 
grasping  more  relations  in  the  attempt  to  get  hold  of 
some  associated  line  to  suggest  the  missing  element. 

In  imagination  the  mind  advances  over  memory 
(1)  in  grasping  more  time  relations;  (2)  in  filling  out 
the  discrepancies  of  memory  in  its  effort  to  remember 
a  thing  completely;  and  (3)  in  the  freedom  of  the  ac- 
tivity. 

In  reproductive  imagination,  the  least  developed 
kind,  the  mind  advances  just  a  little  beyond  memory. 
The  advance  is  mainly  that  of  supplying  the  discrep- 
ancies of  memory. 


120  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

In  mechanical  imagination  the  advance  over  the 
reproductive  is  the  greater  freedom  of  the  idealizing 
activity. 

In  the  creative  imagination  the  advance  is  in  the 
greater  number  of  relations  grasped  because  of  the 
freedom  of  the  idealizing  activity  of  the  mind. 

The  advance  of  conception  over  the  stages  of 
knowing  below  it  is  that  of  shifting  the  mind's  em- 
phasis from  tJie  particular  to  the  class  common  attributes 
of  objects.  Sense-perception  and  imagination,  the 
idea-forming  stages  of  knowing  below  conception, 
give  particular  ideas;  conception,  also  an  idea- forming 
stage  of  knowing,  advances  to  the  general  idea. 

The  advance  in  definition  over  conception  is 
found  in  the  mind's  effort  to  make  explicit  what  it 
only  vaguely  grasps  in  conception — the  distinct  sepa- 
ration of  the  different  classes  of  things. 

The  advance  in  judgment  is  in  grasping  and  em- 
phasizing the  relation  between  ideas  of  any  kind  what- 
ever; that  is,  in  reaching  out  for  more  relations. 

The  advance  in  reasoning  is  grasping  tlie  relation 
between  entire  judgments,  a  further  broadening  of  the 
relations  grasped. 

The  advance  of  systematization  over  reasoning  is 
in  grasping  the  relations  among  complete  acts  of  reason- 
ing. 

In  intuition  the  advance  is  in  the  equal  emphasis 
of  the  mind  in  grasping  an  object  in  both  its  universal 
and  particular  aspects.  This  is  the  most  complete 


THE   MENTAL   NATURE  OF   THE  CHILD.  12t 

knowing  of  an  object  and  with  it  the  development  of 
knowing  ends. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM. 

Meaning  of  the  Term. — The  curriculum  is  the 
school  course  of  study.  It  is  made  up  of  the  various 
subjects  studied  in  school.  Thus  in  the  primary,  or 
common,  school  the  curriculum  consists  of  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  grammar,  primary 
language,  history,  geography,  physiology,  and  in 
some  places  music,  and  drawing.  In  the  secondary, 
or  high,  school  it  usually  consists  of  algebra,  and 
geometry;  La  tin,  composition,  rhetoric,  and  literature; 
botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  physics,  geology,  and 
astronomy;  ancient  history,  mediaeval  history,  and 
modern  history;  drawing,  and  music. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  the  school  curriculum  is  not 
a  fixed  thing,  but  that  it  changes  from  time  to  time. 
The  subjects  in  the  school  curriculum  taken  as  a 
whole  divide  themselves  into  groups.  There  are  at 
any  rate  the  following  groups: 

1.  The  language  group   consisting   of  reading, 
writing,   spelling,    language,   composition,    rhetoric, 
grammar,  Latin,  literature,  German,  French,  etc. 

2.  The  mathematical  group  consisting  of  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  etc. 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  123 

3.  The  natural  science  group  consisting  of  physi- 
ology, geography,  botany,  zoology,  psychology,  chem- 
istry, physics,  astronomy,  geology,  etc. 

4.  The    history    group    consisting    of    ancient 
history,  medissval  history,  and  modern  history. 

5.  The  art  group   consisting   of   drawing,   and 
music,  at  the  least. 

6.  The   professional    group    consisting   of    psy- 
chology, methodology,  paidology,  etc. 

Origin  of  the  Curriculum. — The  function  of  the 
school  is  to  educate  the  child.  But  the  child  must 
have  something  to  study  that  he  may  get  knowledge 
and  discipline  in  the  process  of  education.  Thus 
there  are  two  aspects  of  the  thought  which  originated 
the  school  curriculum:  the  idea  of  getting  useful 
knowledge,  and  the  idea  of  getting  mental  discipline. 

The  foremost  one  of  these  ideas  was  the  need  for 
useful  knowledge.  So  it  may  be  said  that  the  first 
felt-need  which  was  instrumental  in  originating  the 
school  curriculum  was  the  felt-need  for  useful  knowl- 
edge. And  by  useful  knowledge  is  meant  knowledge 
which  furnishes  one  guidance  in  right  living. 

The  second  felt-need  which  was  instrumental  in 
originating  the  school  curriculum  was  the  felt-need 
for  discipline;  that  is,  for  mental  exercise  to  the  end 
of  health  and  growth.  It  was  recognized  that  the 
mind  must  have  exercise  to  maintain  its  health,  and 
also  to  grow. 


124  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

The  curriculum  at  one  time  consisted  of  nothing 
more  than  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic. 
It  was  called  the  "  three  r's,"  when  it  was  thus  sim- 
ple,— "readin,  ritin,  rithmetic,"  spelling  being  in- 
cluded in  "ritin." 

There  was  a  need  for  some  subject  in  the 
curriculum  the  study  of  which  would  make  the 
children  skillful  in  the  two  following  things: 

1.  Getting  thought  and  feeling  from  pieces  of 
discourse. 

2.  Communicating    this    thought    and    feeling 
orally  in  the  author's  own  words. 

This  need  was  the  origin  of  reading  as  a  subject 
in  the  school  curriculum.  And  the  purpose  of  read- 
ing in  the  school  course  is  to  satisfy  this  need. 

Again  there  was  a  need  for  something  in  the 
school  course  which  would  make  the  children  skillful 
in  the  art  of  making  the  correct  written  forms  by 
means  of  which  thought  and  feeling  are  commu- 
nicated. This  need  was  the  origin  of  spelling  and 
writing  in  the  curriculum.  And  the  purpose  of 
spelling  and  writing  in  the  school  course  is  to  satisfy 
this  need. 

In  dealing  with  the  world  of  objects  the  mind 
needed  to  be  skillful  in  measuring  them.  In  carrying 
on  business  transactions  the  things  exchanged  had  to 
be  measured,  and  skill  was  needed.  So  there  was  a 
need  for  some  subject  in  the  school  course  the  study 
of  which  would  give  the  children  skill  in  measuring. 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  125 

This  need  brought  arithmetic  into  the  school  cur- 
riculum, and  was  thus  its  origin.  And  the  purpose 
of  arithmetic  in  the  schools  is  to  make  the  children 
skillful  in  measuring. 

In  a  similar  way  we  could  trace  out  the  origin  of 
every  study  in  the  school  curriculum,  but  it  will 
probably  be  more  helpful  to  do  that  under  the  head 

of,- 

The  Growth  of  the  Curriculum. — As  stated  above 
the  school  curriculum  of  the  primary,  or  common, 
school,  at  one  time  consisted  barely  of  reading,  writ- 
ing, spelling,  and  arithmetic.  But  it  has  not  remained 
so.  Many  new  subjects  have  been  added.  That  is  to 
say,  the  school  curriculum  has  grown. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  out  the  ideas  which 
brought  the  subjects  into  the  school  curriculum  as  it 
grew,  and  to  compare  those  ideas  with  what  these 
subjects  actually  do  for  those  who  study  them.  That 
is,  to  see  whether  these  subjects  have  realized  in  the 
lives  of  the  children  the  things  which  they  were 
expected  to  realize. 

It  was  seen  that  some  subject  needed  to  be  in  the 
school  curriculum  whose  study  would  give  the  pupils 
the  habit  of  using  good  language  in  communicating 
their  thoughts  and  feelings.  So  grammar  was  added 
to  satisfy  this  need,  and  for  a  long  time  it  was  ex- 
pected that  the  study  of  grammar  would  actually 
give  the  pupils  the  habit  of  using  good  language  in 
writing  and  speaking.  Finally  it  became  evident  that 


126  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

grammar  was  not  doing  this  well  enough.  The  need 
for  some  subject  to  do  this  was  still  strongly  felt.  So 
the  next  attempt  to  satisfy  this  need  brought  primary 
language  as  a  subject  into  the  curriculum. 

The  question  whether  language  lessons  as  usually 
taught  will  satisfy  this  want  suggests  itself. 

It  was  also  felt  that,  since  so  much  of  life's  suc- 
cess and  happiness  depends  upon  the  health  of  the 
physical  being,  something  ought  to  be  added  to 
the  curriculum,  the  study  of  which  would  give  knowl- 
edge valuable  for  guidance  in  maintaining  the  health 
of  the  body.  Thus  physiology  and  hygiene  were 
added  to  the  school  curriculum  to  satisfy  this  want. 

Man  learns  by  experience  and  by  example;  that 
is,  by  his  own  experiences  and  by  the  experiences  of 
others.  He  must  depend  upon  the  experiences  of  the 
race  for  a  large  part  of  his  knowledge.  These  ex- 
periences of  the  race  have  been  preserved  in  recorded 
history;  and  these  experiences  thus  recorded  are  the 
heritage  left  by  the  race  to  humanity. 

There  was  felt  a  need  for  some  subject  in  the 
school  curriculum  the  study  of  which  would  bring 
the  child  into  possession  of  the  thought  and  feeling 
of  the  race  as  manifested  in  history,  and  this  need 
caused  history  to  be  added  to  the  school  curriculum. 

Life  of  all  kinds  is  very  dependent.  Plant  life 
depends  upon  heat,  light,  and  moisture;  animal  life 
of  all  kinds  is  dependent  upon  plant  life  and  other 
animal  life;  and  the  human  being  is  dependent  upon 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  127 

all  these  things  along  with  his  dependence  upon  his 
fellow  men.  This  mutual  dependence  of  life,  veg- 
etable, animal,  and  human  upon  one  another,  and 
upon  heat,  light,  and  moisture  has  led  to  the  wide 
distribution  of  life  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

There  was  a  need  felt  for  some  subject  whose 
study  would  give  the  child  a  knowledge  of  the  mutual 
distribution  of  heat,  light,  moisture,  relief  forms, 
plant  life,  animal  life,  and  human  life  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  Geography  was  added  to  the  school 
curriculum  to  satisfy  this  want,  and  this  was  the 
origin  of  geography  in  the  curriculum. 

Enriching  the  Curriculum. — Within  recent  years 
there  has  been  much  discussion  on  enriching  the 
school  curriculum  of  the  primary  school.  By  en- 
riching it,  is  meant  the  addition  of  new  subjects  to  it 
and  the  bringing  down  some  subjects  which  were 
formerly  taught  only  in  the  advanced  grades  to  the 
lower  grades. 

In  line  with  this  thought  literature,  music,  draiv- 
ing,  and  nature  study  have  been  introduced  into 
many  primary  school  curricula,  and  history,  ge- 
ography, etc.  have  been  placed  in  the  work  of  the  first,, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  years. 

The  main  purpose  in  making  this  change  has 
been  to  make  a  school  curriculum  better  adapted  to 
the  child's  mental  development  in  the  first  three  or 
four  years  of  his  school  life  than  the  one  composed 
almost  wholly  of  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and 


128  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

arithmetic.  It  was  thought  that  the  first  work  of 
the  child  in  school  was  not  well  adapted  to  his  stage 
of  physical  and  mental  development,  and  that,  there- 
fore, was  not  of  a  character  to  arouse  an  enduring, 
drawing  interest  in  school  work.  So  the  need  for 
work  more  interesting  to  the  child  than  the  formal 
work  in  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  number,  is 
largely  the  thing  which  has  produced  these  changes 
in  the  curriculum. 

A  Rational  Curriculum. — The  school  curriculum 
has  been  criticised  on  the  ground  that  it  is  not  ra- 
tional; that  is,  it  is  not  reasonable.  The  question, 
What  is  a  rational  school  curriculum?  at  once  suggests 
itself.  Let  us  study  this  question  systematically  for 
a  time. 

All  would  no  doubt  agree  that  that  school  cur- 
riculum is  the  most  reasonable  which  is  best  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  learner's  life.  And  all  would  also 
agree  that  that  school  curriculum  which  wastes  the 
learner's  time  and  breaks  down  his  health  is  not  a 
reasonable  one.  Then  if  in  some  way  it  can  be  de- 
termined what  school  curriculum  is  best  adapted  to 
the  learner's  life,  it  may  be  known  what  a  rational 
school  curriculum  is. 

In  order  to  proceed  in  a  systematic  study  of  the 
curriculum  it  is  necessary  to  rethink  the  purpose  of 
the  educating  process. 

The  Purpose  of  Education. — Herbert  Spencer,  it 

be  remembered,  says  the  purpose  of  education 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  129 

is  complete  living.  And  there  is  unanimity  of  opinion 
among  thinking  people  everywhere  on  this  point. 
Certainly  any  work  in  the  educating  process  is  to  be 
regarded  as  good  or  poor  accordingly  as  it  helps 
much  or  little  in  right  living.  The  evidence  that 
people  generally  estimate  the  value  of  any  subject  in 
the  school  curriculum  in  terms  of  living  is,  that  when 
any  one  wants  to  show  the  value  of  any  school  sub- 
ject, he  attempts  to  show  how  it  helps  in  life.  Thus 
the  teacher  of  French,  when  he  wishes  to  show  the 
value  of  the  study  of  French,  always  does  it  in  terms 
of  life;  the  German  teacher,  and  the  Latin  teacher 
endeavor  to  show  the  use  of  German  and  Latin  in 
living. 

It  was  previously  seen  that  "complete  living** 
means  the  following:  1.  Treating  the  body  right. 
2.  Treating  the  mind  right.  3.  Managing  one's 
business  right.  4.  Rearing  a  family  right.  5. 
Behaving  right  as  a  citizen.  6.  Spending  one's 
leisure  time  right. 

The  Test. — The  only  rational  mode  of  judging  the 
value  of  any  school  curriculum  is  to  judge  to  what 
degree  it  discharges  the  function  of  preparing  for 
right  living.  The  test  is  as  follows :  Any  subject  is 
valuable  in  the  school  curriculum  just  to  the  degree  to 
which  it  helps  in  right  living. 

The  First  Step  in  Applying  the  Test. — The  first  step 
in  applying  this  test  to  the  school  curriculum  is  to 
classify,  in  order  of  importance,  the  lines  of  activity 


130  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

which  make  up  human  life.  These  are  as  follows:  1. 
Those  activities  put  forth  in  direct  self-preservation. 
2.  Those  activities  put  forth  in  indirect  self-preser- 
vation. 3.  Those  activities  put  forth  in  rearing  a 
family.  4.  Those  activities  put  forth  in  performing' 
the  duties  of  citizenship.  5.  Those  activities  put 
forth  in  spending  one's  leisure  time. 

The  Order  of  Importance  of  These  Lines. — A  little 
study  shows  that  these  lines  of  activities  have  been 
arranged  in  the  order  of  decreasing  importance.  The 
activities  put  forth  in  direct  self-preservation — those 
in  getting  out  of  the  way  of  objects  which  would  in- 
jure, avoiding  danger,  eating,  drinking,  protecting 
ourselves,  etc. — are  first  in  importance.  If  one  were 
as  ignorant  as  an  infant  of  his  environment,  he  would 
lose  his  life  in  less  than  a  day,  unless  he  had  some 
one  to  care  for  him.  And,  since  absolute  ignorance 
of  all  other  things  would  not  bring  death  so  quickly, 
those  activities  spent  in  direct  self-preservation  and 
that  knowledge  which  furnishes  guidance  for  these 
activities  are  of  foremost  importance. 

The  activities  spent  in  indirect  self-preservation — 
those  activities  in  securing  food,  clothing,  and  shelter 
— are  second  in  importance.  That  these  activities 
precede  in  importance  those  put  forth  hi  rearing 
families  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  self -main- 
tenance makes  possible  those  activities  employed  in 
rearing  families.  Without  self -maintenance  first 
there  could  be  no  family  life.  Thus  the  activities  put 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  131 

forth  in  indirect  self-preservation  are  second  in  im- 
portance only  to  those  needful  in  direct  self-preser- 
vation. 

No  social  life  would  be  possible  without  the 
family.  The  family  is  the  most  fundamental  social 
institution,  and  the  rearing  of  children  alone  makes 
possible  the  church,  state,  etc.  Then  those  activities 
employed  in  bringing  up  children  are  more  important 
than  those  spent  in  performing  the  duties  of  citizen- 
ship. 

Again  the  goodness  of  society  as  a  whole  depends 
upon  the  goodness  of  those  individuals  who  compose 
it,  and  the  quality  of  the  individuals  depends  largely 
upon  the  family  training.  Therefore  those  activities 
put  forth  hi  rearing  a  family  are  third  in  importance. 

Fourth  in  importance  are  those  activities  put 
forth  in  fulfilling  one's  duties  as  a  citizen.  This  ap- 
pears from  the  fact  that  of  all  the  lines  of  activities 
making  up  life,  those  used  in  spending  leisure  time 
could  be  best  left  out  of  life.  Also,  the  various  forms 
of  pleasurable  activities  which  fill  up  leisure  hours 
presuppose  social  institutions.  No  great  degree  of 
development  of  these  pleasurable  occupations  is 
possible  without  well  established  social  institutions. 

Fifth  and  last  in  the  lines  of  activities  which 
make  human  life  are  the  activities  spent  in  leisure 
time. 

The  Eatlonal  Order  of  Education. — From  the  fore- 
going, the  following  is  seen  to  be  the  rational  order 


132  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

of  education:  1.  That  education  which  prepares  for 
direct  self-preservation.  2.  That  education  which 
prepares  for  indirect  self-preservation.  3.  That 
education  which  prepares  for  parenthood,  and  the 
bringing  up  of  a  family.  4.  That  education  which 
prepares  one  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  5.  That 
education  which  prepares  for  spending  right  one's 
leisure  time. 

While  there  may  be  particular  exceptions  and 
modifications  of  this  order  in  the  lives  of  some  indi- 
viduals, yet  there  remain  these  marked  divisions,  and 
they  subordinate  one  another  substantially  as  indi- 
cated. 

The  Second  Step  in  Applying  the  Test. — The  second 
step  in  applying  the  test  is  to  classify  knowledge  in 
the  order  of  its  importance. 

Not  all  knowledge  is  of  equal  value  to  the  human 
race.  Some  may  have  a  vital  bearing  upon  all  human 
life  for  all  time;  some  may  touch  the  lives  of  only  a 
few  for  only  a  brief  time;  and  some  may  be  so  re- 
motely related  to  human  life  as  to  have  almost  no 
bearing  upon  it.  Accordingly  knowledge  has  been 
classified  as  follows:  1.  Knowledge  of  intrinsic 
value.  2.  Knowledge  of  quasi-intrinsic  value.  3. 
Knowledge  of  conventional  value. 

Knowledge  of  intrinsic  value  is  that  knowledge 
which  bears  upon  the  life  of  all  mankind  throughout 
all  time.  The  knowledge  that  chlorine  is  a  disin- 
fectant; that  tuberculosis  is  a  disease  caused  by  a 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  133 

germ;  that  every  thought  or  feeling  one  has  burns 
away  some  of  his  brain  material,  and  scientific  knowl- 
edge in  general,  is  knowledge  of  intrinsic  value. 
These  truths  will  have  a  bearing  on  human  conduct 
for  all  time. 

The  extra  knowledge  of  the  English  language 
which  the  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  gives  is  knowl- 
edge of  quasi-intrinsic  value.  It  has  a  value  to  a  part 
of  humanity  for  a  part  of  time,  but  is  not  of  value  to 
all  mankind  for  all  time. 

Knowledge  of  conventional  value  is  simply 
fashionable  knowledge.  Gossip,  neighborhood  and 
national,  much  of  Greek  and  Latin  taught  in  school, 
and  some  parts  of  history  are  knowledge  of  only  con- 
ventional value.  Much  that  is  taught  in  the  subjects 
above  mentioned  scarcely  has  the  remotest  bearing 
upon  human  activities.  It  is  fashionable  to  learn 
such  things,  and  so  people  go  on  studying  them  with- 
out ever  having  thought  out  what  bearing  they  really 
have  on  human  life. 

Thus  in  estimating  the  value  of  knowledge, 
knowledge  of  intrinsic  value  is  of  first  importance. 

The  Value  of  Learning. — The  process  of  learning 
is  valuable  from  two  points  of  view.  First,  knowledge 
is  obtained  which  furnishes  guidance  in  human  con- 
duct. Secondly,  the  mind  gets  healthful  exercise  in 
its  efforts  to  learn.  The  mind  develops  by  exercise; 
that  is,  it  learns  to  do  by  doing.  The  exercise  of  the 
mind  to  the  end  of  maintaining  its  health,  and  develop- 


134  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

ing  its  strength  is  what  is  called  mental  discipline. 
Thus  any  learning  has  two  values:  1.  A  knowledge- 
giving  value.  2.  A  disciplinary  value. 

Thoughts  to  Be  Kept  in  Mind. — In  the  further 
study  of  the  school  curriculum,  in  order  to  system- 
atize the  study,  the  following  thoughts  should  be  kept 
in  mind: 

1.  Life  is  divided  into  several  lines  of  activity  of 
decreasing  importance. 

2.  Knowledge  is  of  three  kinds  according  to  its 
worth:    a.     Knowledge  of  intrinsic  value,    b.  Knowl- 
edge   of    quasi-intrinsic    value,     c.     Knowledge    of 
conventional  value. 

3.  Learning    always    has    two    values:     a.     A 
knowledge-giving  value,     b.     A  disciplinary  value. 

Disciplinary  Value  and  Knowledge -giving  Value 
Not  Antagonistic. — There  is  an  error  current  to  a 
large  extent  that  some  subjects  are  needed  in  the 
school  curriculum  because  they  have  an  excellent 
disciplinary  value,  even  though  their  study  does  not 
give  knowledge  of  much  use  in  guiding  one  in  right 
living;  and  another  aspect  of  the  same  error  is,  that 
some  subjects  are  needed  in  the  school  curriculum 
because  of  the  useful  knowledge  their  pursuit  gives, 
even  though  their  study  does  not  furnish  good  mental 
discipline. 

This  error  in  its  two  aspects  has  entered  entirely 
too  largely  into  the  considerations  in  making  school 
curricula  in  the  past.  It  is  quite  possible  that  those 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  135 

subjects  whose  pursuit  gives  knowledge  the  most 
useful  for  guidance  in  right  living  are  the  very  same 
ones  whose  pursuit  gives  the  best  discipline.  And 
there  is  no  lack  of  subjects  to  make  a  curriculum 
which  will  give  the  most  valuable  knowledge  and  at 
the  same  time  give  the  very  best  discipline.  Human 
life  is  too  short  to  study  one  set  of  subjects  for  valu- 
able knowledge  alone,  and  to  study  another  set  of 
subjects  for  discipline  alone. 

In  the  solution  of  any  educational  problem  hints 
usually  may  be  had  from  nature.  Everywhere  in 
nature  we  find  capacities  developed  by  performing 
the  functions  which  it  is  their  office  to  perform,  and 
not  by  some  exercise  artificially  arranged  to  fit  them 
for  the  performance  of  these  duties.  The  hunter  ac- 
quires the  discipline  which  makes  him  a  successful 
hunter  only  by  the  pursuit  of  game.  The  highest  de- 
velopment of  a  power  always  results  from  the  exercise 
in  the  work  which  the  conditions  of  life  require  of  it. 

In  the  light  of  these  truths,  the  acquisition  ivhich 
gives  the  most  valuable  knowledge  must  at  the  same  time 
furnish  the  very  best  discipline. 

Making  discipline  almost  the  entire  object  in 
teaching  '  'is  responsible  for  a  sort  of  mediaeval  dia- 
lectics and  fruitless  beating  of  the  air  in  teaching 
which  passes  as  superfine  method.  It  is  Fichte's 
idealism  and  subjectivity  run  mad." 

Direct  Self-preservation. — The  knowledge  which 
gives  guidance  in  direct  self-preservation,  too  im- 


136  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

portant  to  be  left  to  be  taught  in  school,  Nature  has 
taken  into  her  own  hands  to  teach.  She  is  teaching 
the  child  his  daily  lessons  in  direct  self-preservation 
by  means  of  the  falls,  bruises,  scratches,  cuts,  burns, 
and  pains  which  befall  him  every  day  in  his  early 
life.  Mother  Nature  teaches  the  lesson  well  that, 
when  any  of  the  laws  of  life  are  violated,  pain  and 
misery  are  the  inevitable  result. 

Not  being  aware  of  all  the  safeguards  which 
nature  has  furnished  us,  we  often  violate  her  laws. 
What  subjects  have  we  in  the  school  curriculum 
whose  pursuit  will  furnish  knowledge  for  guidance 
hi  these  activities?  The  answer  to  this  question  is,  we 
have  physiology  and  hygiene.  The  pursuit  of  these 
subjects  gives  the  knowledge  that  one's  physical 
sensations  and  desires — cold,  heat,  fatigue,  hunger, 
thirst,  etc. — are  promptings  which,  if  obeyed,  would 
to  a  large  extent  provide  for  direct  self-preservation. 
But  so  great  an  ignorance  is  there  of  the  laws  of  life 
that  men  do  not  appreciate  fully  enough  that  the 
sensations  are  the  natural  guides  hi  direct  self-pres- 
ervation. 

Physiology  and  hygiene  have  it  as  their  field  of 
work  to  teach  a  better  general  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  physical  life  and  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  ne- 
cessity and  momentous  importance  of  their  obedience. 

No  one  will  doubt  the  value  of  physiology  and 
hygiene  in  the  school  curriculum  who  will  consider 
the  pain,  the  weariness,  the  gloom,  the  waste  of  time 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  137 

and  money  entailed,  and  "how  greatly  ill-health 
hinders  the  discharge  of  all  duties,  makes  business 
often  impossible  and  always  more  difficult;  produces 
an  irritability  fatal  to  the  right  management  of  chil- 
dren; puts  the  function  of  citizenship  out  of  the 
question;  and  makes  amusement  a  bore.  Is  it  not 
clear  that  the  physical  sins,  partly  our  forefathers* 
and  partly  our  own,  which  produce  this  ill-health, 
deduct  more  from  complete  living  than  any  thing 
else,  and  to  a  great  extent  make  life  a  failure  and  a 
burden  instead  of  a  benefaction  and  a  pleasure?" 

And  it  may  further  be  added  that  the  average 
length  of  human  life  is,  by  the  violation  of  these 
physical  laws,  largely  cut  short. 

Physiology  and  hygiene  may  thus  be  seen  to 
occupy  a  dignified  and  exalted  position  in  the  school 
curriculum.  And  this  is  a  fact  which  should  be  seen 
and  appreciated  by  every  teacher  that  these  sciences 
may  be  taught  conscientiously  and  well. 

Indirect  Self-preservation. — The  knowledge  which 
furnishes  guidance  in  indirect  self-preservation  is 
that  which  guides  in  making  a  living — in  obtaining 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  All  persons  are  agreed 
upon  the  importance  of  such  knowledge;  and  indeed, 
by  too  many  it  is  regarded  as  the  sole  or  main  object 
of  education.  While  every  one  is  agreed  that  knowl- 
edge which  iurnishes  guidance  in  making  a  living  is 
of  high  importance,  yet  few  have  systematically 
thought  out  just  what  knowledge  will  best  do  this. 


138  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

In  order  to  study  this  question  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, it  is  necessary  to  notice  the  main  things  in 
which  men  who  work  are  employed. 

What  Things  Men  Are  Employed  in. — The  main 
lines  hi  which  men  who  work  for  a  living  are  employed 
are  as  follows: 

1.  The  production  of  commodities. 

2.  The  preparation  of  commodities. 

3.  The  distribution  of  commodities. 

By  the  prpduction  jot  commodities  is  meant  the 
production  of  corn,  wheat,  hay,  oats,  beef,  pork,  coal, 
iron,  wool,  flax,  poultry,  fruit,  lumber,  leather,  silk, 
cotton,  linen,  hemp,  and  a  large  number  of  other 
similar  things. 

The  preparation  of  commodities  means  changing 
them  into  a  fit  condition  for  consumption,  or  use.  It 
refers  mainly  to  manufacturing;  as  the  manufacture 
of  machinery,  food,  clothing,  etc. 

Distribution  refers  to  sending  such  things  to  the 
points  of  consumption. 

Now,  the  question  is,  What  knowledge  gives 
the  greatest  guidance  in  these  three  lines  of  activities? 

It  is  evident  that  commodities  could  not  be  dis- 
tributed without  a  knowledge  of  reading,  writing, 
spelling,  and  arithmetic.  Distribution  requires 
railroads,  canals,  bridges,  docks,  and  the  dredging  of 
rivers;  locomotives,  cars,  steamboats,  and  steam- 
ships. But  the  knowledge  which  guides  in  the 
construction  of  these  is  a  knowledge  of  mathematics, 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  139 

physics,  chemistry,  and  mechanics.  Thus  the  knowl- 
edge which  gives  guidance  in  the  distribution  of 
commodities  is,  directly,  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  and  mechanics;  and  indirectly,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  spelling. 

That  knowledge  which  guides  in  the  preparation 
of  commodities  is,  again,  directly,  a  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  physics,  mathematics,  and  mechanics; 
and  indirectly,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  and  arith- 
metic. 

That  knowledge  which  gives  guidance  in  the 
production  of  commodities  is,  directly,  chemistry, 
physics,  geology,  zoology,  botany,  agriculture,  horti- 
culture, and  bacteriology;  and  indirectly,  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  and  arithmetic. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  subjects  whose  study 
furnishes  knowledge  which  gives  guidance  in  both 
direct  and  indirect  self-preservation  directly  are  al- 
most wholly  science  subjects. 

The  Rearing  of  a  Family. — One  is  led  to  wonder, 
when  he  thinks  of  our  school  curriculum,  whether 
this  division  of  human  activities  is  to  be  considered  of 
so  little  importance  that  no  systematic  knowledge  is 
needed  to  furnish  guidance  for  them. 

"If  by  some  strange  chance  not  a  vestige  of  us 
descended  to  the  remote  future  save  a  pile  of  our 
school  books  or  some  college  examination  papers,  we 
may  imagine  how  puzzled  an  antiquary  of  the  period 
would  be  on  finding  in  them  no  indications  that  the 


140  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

learners  were  ever  likely  to  be  parents.  This  must 
have  been  the  curriculum  for  their  celibates,'  we  may 
fancy  him  concluding.  'I  perceive  here  an  elaborate 
preparation  for  many  things:  especially  for  reading 
the  books  of  extinct  nations  and  coexisting  nations — 
from  which  indeed  it  seems  that  these  people  had 
very  little  worth  reading  in  their  own  tongue;  but  I 
find  no  reference  whatever  to  the  bringing  up  of 
children.  They  could  not  have  been  so  absurd  as  to 
omit  all  training  for  this  gravest  of  responsibilities. 
Evidently  then,  this  was  the  school  course  of  one  of 
their  monastic  orders.'  " 

There  are  however  in  the  school  curriculum 
physiology  and  hygiene  whose  pursuit  will  give 
knowledge  which  furnishes  guidance  in  bringing  up 
children,  in  so  far  as  the  laws  of  their  bodies  are 
concerned.  But  not  enough  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
these  subjects.  The  value  of  the  knowledge  furnished 
by  their  study  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  appre- 
ciated. 

"To  tens  of  thousands  that  are  killed,  add 
hundreds  of  thousands  that  survive  with  feeble  con- 
stitutions, and  millions  that  grow  up  with  constitu- 
tions not  as  strong  as  they  should  be;  and  you  will 
have  some  idea  of  the  curse  inflicted  on  their  off- 
spring by  parents  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  life." 

The  child  not  only  has  a  physical  nature,  but  he 
has  also  a  moral  and  intellectual  nature.  For  guid- 
ance in  the  moral  and  intellectual  training  of  children 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  141 

there  is  almost  nothing  in  the  average  school  cur- 
riculum whose  study  gives  the  requisite  knowledge. 

Psychology  and  child  study  are  the  subjects 
whose  pursuit  gives  the  knowledge  most  valuable  for 
guidance  in  these  activities.  But  few  schools  have 
these  subjects  in  their  curricula  at  present,  and 
probably  will  not  for  many  years  yet. 

"Be  this  as  it  may,  however,  here  are  the  indis- 
putable facts:  that  the  development  of  children  in 
mind  and  body  rigorously  obeys  certain  laws;  that 
unless  these  laws  are  in  some  degree  conformed  to 
by  parents,  death  is  inevitable;  that  unless  they  are 
in  a  great  degree  conformed  to,  there  must  result 
serious  physical  and  mental  defects;  and  that  only 
when  they  are  completely  conformed  to,  can  a  per- 
fect maturity  be  reached." 

Man's  Duties  as  a  Citizen. — When  one  asks  him- 
self what  subjects  there  are  in  the  school  curriculum 
the  pursuit  of  which  furnishes  guidance  in  one's 
duties  as  a  citizen,  his  mind  turns  to  history,  for  it 
has  been  asserted  over  and  over  again  that  the  study 
of  history  makes  good  citizens.  But  when  one  stops 
to  think  whether  history,  as  usually  taught,  does 
especially  make  good  citizens,  it  does  not  seem  very 
clear. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  if  history  were  properly 
taught,  it  would  give  a  stock  of  knowledge  valuable 
for  guidance  in  citizenship.  But  in  order  that  history 
may  give  this  guidance  it  must  not  be  taught  merely 


142  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

as  a  record  of  events;  neither  must  it  be  taught  as 
isolated  events,  nor  must  all  the  time  of  teaching  be 
spent  on  the  state  as  an  institution  of  society.  To 
accomplish  this  desired  result  history  must  be 
studied  as  the  struggle  of  the  race  in  its  effort  for  higher 
life.  This  struggle  must  be  seen  to  have  been  one  in 
all  the  institutions  of  society — the  family,  the  school, 
the  church,  industrial  life,  and  the  state.  It  must  be 
seen,  too,  that  in  human  action  there  is  a  seed-time,  a 
period  of  growth,  and  a  fruitage. 

But  as  history  is  often  taught  it  certainly  is 
worth  little  for  guidance  in  citizenship. 

Literature,  if  well  taught,  is  valuable  for  guidance 
in  this  line  of  activities. 

The  best  interpretation  of  both  history  and  liter- 
ature requires  a  knowledge  of  psychology.  This  is 
evident  from  the  following:  If  one  knew  absolutely 
nothing  about  the  human  mind,  he  could  not  interpret 
history  or  literature  at  all.  And  certainly  one  who 
has  an  organized,  systematic  knowledge  of  psychology 
will  interpret  better  than  one  who  has  only  a  frag- 
mentary, unorganized  knowledge  of  it. 

"Without  an  acquaintance  with  the  general  truths 
of  biology  and  psychology,  rational  interpretation  of 
social  phenomena  is  impossible. "  "All  social  phe- 
nomena are  phenomena  of  life — are  ultimately  de- 
pendent upon  the  laws  of  life— and  can  be  understood 
only  when  the  laws  of  life  are  understood. " 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  14& 

Sociology  is  the  best  subject  in  the  school  cur- 
riculum to  furnish  knowledge  valuable  for  guidance 
in  the  duties  of  citizenship,  and  an  understanding  of 
sociology  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  a  knowledge 
of  psychology. 

Thus,  we  see  again  that  for  knowledge  to  furnish 
guidance  in  this  fourth  division  of  human  activities,, 
we  are  largely  dependent  upon  science. 

Spending  Leisure  Time. — A  life  with  no  leisure 
time  is  not  most  to  be  desired,  for  it  is  almost  sure 
to  become  one  of  drudgery.  All  should  have  some 
leisure  time  and  should  have  proper  habits  of  spend- 
ing it.  This  time  should  be  spent  in  such  a  way  that 
it  will  furnish  recreation  and  amusement,  and  at  the 
same  time  be  not  degrading,  but  uplifting  in  its  ef- 
fects. If  one  must  spend  his  leisure  time  in  such  a, 
way  as  to  degrade  himself,  he  would  be  benefitted  by 
not  having  any  to  spend. 

This  time  could  be  spent  in  the  enjoyment  of 
Nature;  in  the  enjoyment  of  literature;  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  fine  arts — architecture,  sculpture,  music, 
painting,  and  poetry —  and  in  the  companionship  of 
one's  friends,  and  so  spent  would  be  elevating,  and 
ennobling. 

Those  subjects  which  will  put  one  in  the  right 
attitude  of  mind  for  the  enjoyment  of  nature  are  those 
subjects  which  treat  of  nature.  That  is  to  say,  they 
are  the  natural  sciences — botany,  zoology,  geology* 
astronomy,  chemistry,  and  physics. 


144  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

That  subject  which  gives  knowledge  valuable  for 
guidance  in  enjoying  literature  is  directly  the  school 
subject,  literature.  And  to  this  should  be  added 
psychology,  which  aids  largely  in  the  interpretation 
of  literature. 

Music,  now  in  many  school  courses  is  the  subject 
which  gives  ability  to  enjoy  music. 

In  the  average  school  curriculum  there  is  nothing 
which  directly  prepares  one  to  enjoy  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  painting. 

For  the  enjoyment  of  poetry,  literature,  reading, 
and  psychology  prepare  one. 

Greek  and  Latin. — Prom  a  systematic  study  of 
the  school  curriculum  one  wonders  why  so  much  time 
is  still  spent  on  Greek  and  Latin  in  our  schools.  It 
cannot  be  because  they  give  knowledge  valuable  to 
any  large  extent  for  guidance  in  living.  In  fact,  they 
have  small  claim  to  a  place  in  the  school  curriculum 
because  of  the  valuable  knowledge  their  pursuit  fur- 
nishes. Their  claim  to  a  place  in  the  curriculum 
rests  upon  the  idea  that  they  are  good  disciplinary 
studies. 

It  has  been  shown  that  those  subjects  which 
furnish  the  most  valuable  knowledge  also  furnish  the 
best  discipline.  Therefore,  Greek  and  Latin  are 
over-rated  as  disciplinary  subjects,  too.  It  has  also 
been  seen  that  it  never  pays  best  to  study  any  sub- 
ject merely  for  discipline  when  there  are  so  many 
subjects  the  mastery  of  which  furnishes  the  best 
discipline  and  valuable  knowledge,  too. 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  145 

The  Most  Valuable  Knowledge. — A  systematic 
study  of  the  school  curriculum  points  indubitably  to 
the  fact  that  the  most  valuable  group  of  subjects  in 
the  school  curriculum  is  the  science  group;  the  most 
valuable  from  both  the  valuable  knowledge  stand- 
point, and  the  disciplinary  standpoint. 

Science  has  liberated  humanity  from  the  bondage 
of  superstition  to  a  large  extent.  Science  has  tun- 
neled mountains,  bridged  rivers,  and  spanned 
continents.  Science  has  harnessed  waterfalls  to  do 
man's  bidding.  Science  has  tamed  the  lightning  to 
minister  to  man's  wants.  Science  has  prevented 
plagues,  stamped  out  zymotic  diseases,  and  made  it 
possible  for  man  to  inhabit  almost  every  part  of  the 
earth.  In  short,  science  has  been  the  vitalizing  force 
which  has  done  more  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
mankind  than  all  other  influences  combined.  Science 
has  enfranchised  the  human  race  physically,  intel- 
lectually, aesthetically,  socially,  morally,  and  re- 
ligiously. 

Child  Study  and  the  Curriculum. — We  will  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  we  started  out  to  see  whether 
our  school  curriculum  is  a  rational  one  or  not.  And 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  solution  of  this  problem  it  has 
been  found  out  that  much  time  is  wasted  in  school  in 
the  pursuit  of  subjects  not  the  most  valuable. 

There  is  also  another  phase  of  this  subject  which 
has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  rationality  of  the 
school  curriculum.  The  question  is,  Are  the  subjects 


146  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

in  the  school  course  taught  at  the  time  in  the  child's 
life  when  they  are  best  adapted  to  his  stage  of  de- 
velopment? A  curriculum  can  not  truthfully  be  said 
to  be  rational,  if  the  various  subjects  are  not  taught 
at  the  period  in  the  life  of  the  learner  when  they  may 
best  be  taught.  For  instance,  no  one  would  say  a 
school  curriculum  which  provides  the  study  of 
algebra,  of  psychology,  or  of  logic  for  the  child  of  six 
is  rational. 

Much  systematic,  painstaking,  and  exact  study 
has  recently  been  given  to  children  in  the  search  for 
the  solution  of  this  problem  along  with  many  others. 
The  consensus  of  opinion  on  this  question  is  pretty 
accurately  stated  in  the  following  quotation: 

Changes  in  the  Curriculum  Suggested  by  Child 
Study. — "Our  increasing  knowledge  of  the  child's 
mind,  his  muscular  and  nervous  system,  and  his 
special  senses  points  indubitably  to  the  conclusion 
that  reading  and  writing  are  subjects  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  early  years  of  school  life,  but  to  a  later 
period,  and  that  other  subjects  now  studied  later  are 
better  adapted  to  this  early  stage  of  development. 
What  is  thus  indicated  of  reading  and  writing  may  be 
affirmed  also  of  drawing  and  arithmetic. " 

The  physiological  and  psychological  reasons  for 
the  above  statement  can  not  be  discussed  here.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say  that  the  study  of  these  things  early  in 
school  life  produces  nervous  diseases,  and  arrested 
development;  also,  diseases  of  the  sense  organs, 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM.  147 

particularly  of  the  eyes.  There  is,  too,  thus  a  great 
loss  of  time  and  energy,  and  bad  mental  habits  are 
formed. 

Child  study  undoubtedly  points  to  the  fact  that 
nature  study,  oral  history ,  oral  literature,  and  the  free 
activity  of  the  larger  movements  of  the  body,  as  in 
manual  training,  should  constitute  the  school  cur- 
riculum for  about  the  first  four  years  of  the  child's 
school  life,  and  that  reading,  writing,  spelling,  draw- 
ing, and  arithmetic  should  come  later. 

So  the  answer  derived  from  our  study  of  the 
school  curriculum  is,  that  we  certainly  have  not  yet  a 
wholly  rational  school  curriculum. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

THE    TEACHER. 

Importance  of  the  Teacher. — From  the  standpoint 
of  the  purpose  of  the  school  the  learner  is  the  most 
important  element  of  the  school.  But  from  another 
point  of  view  the  teacher  seems  to  be  the  most  im- 
portant element  of  the  school.  It  is  true  that  the 
school  exists  for  the  learner,  and  without  him  there 
would  be  no  need  for  the  teacher,  school  house,  cur- 
riculum, or  school  officers.  The  development  in  the 
child's  life  is  the  end  to  be  attained,  and  all  parts  and 
processes  of  school  work  are  means  to  this  end.  The 
end  is  always  more  important  than  the  means  in  all 
rational  processes.  Thus  the  teacher  stands  in  re- 
lation to  the  development  in  the  life  of  the  learner  as 
means  to  end. 

When  the  teacher  is  considered  as  the  element  in 
the  school  upon  which  its  successful  operation  most 
depends,  he  seems  the  most  important  element  in  the 
school. 

There  is  much  truth  in  the  statement,  "As  the 
teacher  is,  so  will  be  the  school. "  He  is  the  life-giving 
element  in  the  school.  If  the  teacher  is  properly 
qualified,  loves  his  work,  and  has  a  sympathetic  in- 


THE    TEACHER.  149 

sight  into  the  lives  of  his  pupils,  hardly  any  thing  can 
make  his  school  a  failure. 

Duties  of  the  Teacher. — The  duties  of  the  teacher 
are,  indeed,  many.  He  must  poke  the  fire,  sweep 
the  floor,  keep  proper  ventilation,  oversee  the  care  of 
school  grounds,  and. vigilantly  watch  school  property; 
tie  up  cut  fingers,  doctor  bruised  heads  and  limbs, 
soothe  the  sorrows  of  some,  and  rejoice  in  the  joy  of 
others;  encourage  the  brave,  generous,  and  true,  and 
frown  upon  the  cowardly,  selfish,  and  deceitful.  He 
must  assign  lessons,  hear  recitations,  correct  the 
wayward,  and  encourage  the  good  of  all  kinds. 

From  such  an  inventory  of  the  teacher's  duties  it 
seems  at  first  sight  that  nothing  can  be  got  but  con- 
fusion. A  little  thought,  however,  will  show  that 
these  duties  may  readily  be  divided  into  two  classes : 
1.  Governing.  2.  Teaching. 

Governing. — Governing  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  in 
keeping  the  organization  running  with  the  least  possible 
friction.  A  common  error  made  by  the  teacher  in 
school  government  is  in  thinking  that  he  is  a  legislator 
as  well  as  an  executive.  He  thinks  this  and  so  acts 
as  to  lead  his  students  to  think  it.  No  worse  mistake 
than  this  can  be  made  in  school  government.  In- 
stead of  the  teacher's  thinking  that  he  is  a  legislator 
and  that  the  laws  of  the  school  originate  in  him,  he 
should  understand  that  the  laws  of  the  school  are  in- 
herent in  the  organization  itself.  The  pupils  should 
be  led  by  the  conduct  of  the  teacher  to  appreciate 
this  fact,  too,  in  so  far  as  they  are  able  to  do  so. 


150  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  teacher  is  governor  in  that  it  is  his  duty  to 
call  attention  to  the  laws  of  the  school,  explain  them, 
and  execute  them. 

Teaching. — Teaching  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  in 
leading  the  learner  into  those  experiences  which  con- 
stantly make  him  a  little  more  wise  and  virtuous. 

From  this  study  of  teaching  it  is  easy  to  deduce 
the  following  definition  of  a  teacher: 

A  teacher  is  one  who  stimulates  the  learner  to  ex- 
periences which  he  would  not  have  without  that  one's 
influence. 

The  teacher's  duties  in  teaching  are  both  positive 
and  negative. 

Positive  Duties. — Every  experience  the  learner 
has  affects  him  permanently  to  some  degree.  Some 
organize  him  toward  a  higher  destiny  and  some, 
toward  a  lower.  While  the  child  is  naturally  born 
with  capacities  for  becoming  good,  he  is  also  born  with 
capacities  for  becoming  bad. 

"The  child  inherits  not  only  the  good  proclivities 
and  propensities  of  his  long  line  of  ancestors,  but  he 
inherits  also  bad  feelings  and  emotions.  His  heart  is 
not  altogether  a  good  heart;  it  overflows  not  only  in 
goodness  but  also  at  times  more  or  less  frequent, 
in  selfishness,  rancor,  bitterness,  cowardliness;  in 
short  in  excesses  and  defects  of  various  kinds. '' 

From  the  positive  side  the  teacher  is  to  guide  the 
child  in  the  development  of  all  that  is  good  in  his 
nature,  and  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  which 


THE    TEACHER.  151 

•will  furnish  guidance  in  right  living.  Thus  the 
teacher's  positive  duties  are  to  arouse  the  experiences 
in  the  life  of  the  child  which  constantly  lift  him  to  a 
higher  plane  of  living.  Such  experiences  are  along 
six  lines:  physical,  intellectual,  aesthetic,  social,  moral, 
and  religious.  And  this  is  what  it  means  to  teach 
considered  from  the  positive  side.  Thus,  teaching  is 
arousing  those  experiences — physical,  intellectual,  aes- 
thetic, social,  moral,  and  religious — in  the  life  of  the 
learner  to  the  end  that  he  may  continuously  grow  into  a 
higher  life. 

Negative  Duties. — The  teacher's  negative  duties 
in  teaching  consist  in  eliminating  the  evil  tendencies 
from  the  child's  nature.  The  teacher  is  not  to  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  tendencies,  propensities, 
and  proclivities  for  wrong  doing  born  in  the  child, 
inherited  from  his  long  line  of  ancestors  must  be 
eliminated. 

Some  teachers  make  a  mistake  by  thinking  the 
child  is  naturally  good.  The  child  is  not  moral,  neither 
is  he  immoral,  but  he  is  unmoral;  but  he  may  easily 
develop  into  an  immoral  individual,  if  surrounded  by 
an  immoral  environment.  Whatever  immoral  tend- 
encies he  has  are  to  be  suppressed.  But  these 
characteristics  can  not  ;be  effectively  suppressed  in 
the  life  of  the  child  by  simply  attempting  to  root 
them  out  without  supplying  their  places  with  some- 
thing. That  is  to  say,  education  can  not  be  alone 
negative  nor  even  largely  negative.  The  only  safe 


152  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

plan  is  to  eliminate  the  bad  by  building  up  the  good 
in  its  place.  No  teacher  or  parent  will  succeed  well 
in  educating  his  children,  who  always  has  his  eye 
fixed  on  the  things  which  the  children  ought  not  to 
do.  He  should  supply  the  good  to  take  the  place  of 
the  bad.  In  teaching,  as  in  algebra,  a  good  way  to 
get  rid  of  the  undesirable  element  is  to  eliminate  it 
by  substitution. 

Characteristics  of  the  Teacher. — In  studying  the 
characteristics  of  a  teacher  one  is  impressed,  at 
the  start,  with  the  fact  that  there  are  some  qualities 
which  the  teacher  must  have,  if  he  teaches  success- 
fully at  all,  and  that  there  are  other  desirable  qualities 
which  not  all  can  possess.  Of  the  first  class  scholar- 
ship is  an  example,  and  of  the  second  class  good  health 
and  fine  native  ability  are  examples.  The  first  class 
of  characteristics  may  be  called  necessary  character- 
istics; the  second  may  be  called  supplementary  char- 
acteristics. 

Without  the  first  set  the  teacher  must  be  a 
failure.  The  second  set,  while  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  the  success  of  a  teacher,  are  desirable  and 
facilitate  the  ease  with  which  success  is  attained. 

Necessary  CJiaracteristics. — As  above  stated,  these 
are  absolutely  necessary  to  any  marked  degree  of 
success  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  are  as  follows: 
1.  Strong  moral  character.  2.  Scholarship.  3. 
Professional  preparation.  4.  Energetic,  student's 
habits.  5.  The  habit  of  daily  preparation.  6.  Love 


THE   TEACHER.  155 

of  occupation.     7.     Sympathy   with  children.     We 
will  study  these  somewhat  in  detail. 

Strong  Moral  Character. —  "The  teacher  should  be 
an  example,  in  person  and  conduct,  of  what  he  re- 
quires of  his  pupils. "  This  is  just  as  true  to-day  as 
when  said  by  Comenius  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago.  Since  the  purpose  of  the  school  and  the  aim  of 
education  is  to  make  wise  and  virtuous  men  and  women, 
no  influence  which  does  not  contribute  to  that  end 
should  ever  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  child.  And 
since  we  are  better  understanding  the  power  of  sug- 
gestion, we  are  beginning  to  realize  what  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  life  of  the  children  the  example  of 
the  teacher  has.  Slovenly  habits  of  thought;  slang, 
impure  English,  profanity,  by- words;  smoking,  chew- 
ing tobacco;  dishonesty,  injustice,  and  selfishness  all 
impress  the  life  of  the  child  and  tend  to  reproduce 
themselves  in  him.  No  teacher  who  uses  tobacco — 
smokes  or  chews — who  is  careless  of  his  English,  or 
who  in  any  way  shows  himself  dishonest  or  cowardly 
can  be  as  good  a  man  as  he  would  be  without  those 
traits,  and  since  anything  which  detracts  from  man- 
hood detracts  from  the  teacher,  it  is  equally  true  that 
he  can  not  be  as  good  a  teacher  as  he  would  be  with- 
out those  traits. 

But  while  all  can  agree  on  the  desirability  of 
strong  moral  character  for  the  teacher,  to  talk  of  it 
in  the  abstract  without  knowing  very  definitely  what 
it  means  is  not  sufficiently  helpful.  An  analysis  will 


154  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

«how  that,  at  the  least,  the  following  elements  enter 
into  moral  character:  1.  Knowledge  of  right  and 
wrong.  2.  Truthfulness.  3.  Honesty.  4.  Justness. 
5.  Habits  of  activity.  6.  Self-control. 

Knowledge  of  Right  and  Wrong. — In  order  for  one 
to  have  strong  moral  character,  he  must  have  the 
.ability  to  think  out  the  right  and  wrong  in  human 
activity.  A  man's  motive  may  be  good  and  the  ac- 
tivity prompted  by  that  motive  be  very  bad.  To  say 
that  a  man  may  have  strong  moral  character  and  be 
at  the  same  time  ignorant  concerning  the  common 
laws  of  life  and  daily  human  actions  is  to  place  a 
premium  on  ignorance.  An  ignoramus  can  not  be 
a  man  of  strong  moral  character. 

To  hold  that  an  act  is  good  provided  it  is  done 
with  good  intentions,  notwithstanding  much  human 
misery  and  unhappiness  result  from  it  is  certainly  a 
doctrine  very  pernicious  and  baneful  in  its  results. 

Truthfulness. — It  seems  so  evident  that  truthful- 
ness is  an  element  of  morality  that  no  study  is  needed 
to  prove  it.  There  is  one  aspect  of  this  question 
which  enters  largely  into  the  work  of  the  teacher. 
Teachers  have  feared  to  say  "I  don't  know,"  lest 
pupils  would  lose  confidence  in  their  ability.  It  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that,  if  the  teacher  honestly 
acknowledges  that  he  does  not  know,  when  such  is 
the  case,  the  pupils  will  lose  confidence  in  his  ability. 
If  it  were  so,  it  would  still  be  a  question  whether  it  is 
not  preferable  for  students  to  lose  confidence  in  one's 


THE    TEACHER.  155 

ability  than  to  lose  confidence  in  one's  truthfulness. 
But  students  are,  as  a  rule,  reasonable.  They  do  not 
expect  that  the  teacher  will  never  make  a  mistake, 
nor  that  he  will  know  the  correct  answer  to  every 
question  that  arises.  They  further  know  that  they 
have  no  right  to  expect  so  much,  but  they  also  know 
that  they  have  a  right  to  expect  the  teacher  to  be 
perfectly  truthful. 

Honesty. — Honesty  and  truthfulness  seem  much 
the  same  thing,  as  elements  of  character.  They  how- 
ever emphasize  different  aspects  of  moral  character. 
Truthfulness  refers  to  the  representation  of  things 
as  they  are,  and  so  refers  to  one's  representing 
things  thus.  Honesty  refers  to  uprightness  in  the 
actions  of  one  person  to  another.  In  honesty  ques- 
tions of  advantage  and  disadvantage  are  involved. 
There  are  many  ways  in  which  a  teacher's  honesty  is 
involved  in  school  work.  The  student's  instinct  for 
truth  and  honesty  will  assert  itself  to  the  extent  that 
he  will  appreciate  these  qualities  in  the  teacher.  And 
pupils  are  quick  to  detect  these  characteristics  as 
ivell  as  their  opposites. 

It  is  a  great  misfortune  for  students  to  be  under 
the  influence  of  a  teacher  who  is  untruthful  and  dis- 
honest. Their  opportunities  for  receiving  good  from 
such  a  teacher  are  greatly  lessened.  Even  when  the 
teacher  endeavors  honestly  to  benefit  his  students, 
his  influence  will  lack  force  and  effectiveness. 
.Students  will  not  hear  what  he  says  when  they  know 
what  he  is. 


156  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

"How  can  I  hear  what  you  say,  when  what  you 
are  is  thundering  in  my  ear." 

"The  teacher  can  not  be  a  signboard.  He  must 
go  the  way  he  points. " 

Justness. — In  school  work,  justness  does  not 
mean  that  all  students  must  be  treated  alike.  That 
all  students  must  be  treated  alike  is  a  traditional 
maxim  of  school  which  has  been  pernicious  and  evil 
in  its  effects.  This  maxim  usually  refers  to  correc- 
tions and  rewards.  Scarcely  any  one  would  think 
that  in  teaching  all  are  to  be  taught  in  the  same  way, 
but  in  the  matter  of  corrections  and  rewards  the  idea 
prevails  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  that  all  students 
are  to  be  treated  in  the  same  way.  In  the  matter  of 
being  just  in  rewards  and  corrections  the  individual 
differences  of  children  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion as  well  as  in  the  teaching  act.  No  two  children 
respond  to  stimulus  just  in  the  same  way  nor  in  the 
same  degree. 

It  requires  some  firmness  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  be  just.  The  teacher  may  err  in  two  ways 
in  matters  of  justness:  1.  He  may  err  because  of 
kindness.  2.  He  may  err  from  a  hypercritical 
spirit. 

Too  often  the  teacher  because  of  kindness  fails  to 
have  the  student  see  just  what  his  paper  or  recitation 
is  worth.  A  paper  graded  on  the  scale  of  a  hundred 
is  marked  seventy-five  per  cent,  when  justice  would 
show  it  to  be  worth  no  more  than  thirty  or  forty  per 


THE    TEACHER.  157 

cent.  A  recitation  worth  little  or  nothing  is  smoothed 
over  and  patched  up  by  the  teacher  till  the  pupil  is 
deceived  into  believing  that  he  has  really  done  some- 
thing creditable. 

Justice  may  at  times  seem  severe,  but  its  very 
severity  is  educative  in  a  high  degree.  Justice  after 
a  period  of  growth  always  brings  a  fruitage  much  to 
be  desired.  The  teacher's  profession  is  in  need  of 
teachers  with  courage  to  give  children  credit  for  just 
what  they  merit,  no  more  and  no  less. 

Habits  of  Activity. — No  one  can  be  a  sluggard  and 
be  a  moral  man.  Morality  means  activity.  There 
are  people  who  think  that  if  one  does  no  active  harm 
he  is  entitled  to  be  called  good.  That  is  to  say,  some 
hold  that  activity  is  not  a  necessary  element  of  good- 
ness in  a  man.  A  little  study,  however,  shows  the 
fallacy  of  this  view.  If  one  asks  himself  the  question, 
"What  is  a  good  lead  pencil?"  or  "What  is  a  good 
knife?"  and  stops  to  think  out  the  answer,  he  will  find 
that  he  will  reach  the  conclusion  that  the  lead  pencil 
or  knife  is  good  which  does  its  work  well.  That  is, 
goodness  refers  to  the  ability  or  adaptability  of  a 
thing  to  do  its  work.  And  this  is  the  meaning  of 
goodness  as  generally  understood  concerning  all 
things  except  man.  That  men  are  an  exception  to 
this  general  truth  is  not  reasonable. 

Also,  if  a  man  who  does  neither  active  good  nor 
bad  and  so  does  nothing  is  good,  the  question,  "What 
is  he  good  for?"  suggests  at  once  the  answer,  "good- 
for-nothing. " 


158  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Under  normal  circumstances,  a  strong  moral 
character  means  a  life  of  intense  activity. 

The  teacher's  profession  has  no  need  of  teachers 
who  find  nothing  to  do  after  4:00  P.  M.  and  before 
8:30  A.  M.,  and  least  of  all  have  our  children  need  for 
such  teachers. 

Self-control. — It  seems  unnecessary  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  self-control  is  an  element  of  morality. 
A  brief  study  of  the  lines  of  self-control  is,  however, 
of  some  help. 

For  our  purpose  here,  self-control  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  aspects: 

1.  Control  of  the  appetites. 

2.  Control  of  one's  actions. 

3.  Control  of  one's  language. 

No  person  who  lets  his  appetites  go  without 
restraint  can  be  a  moral  person.  "No  heart  is  so 
pure,  no  soul  is  so  noble,  that  physical  appetite  long 
unrestrained  does  not  corrupt.  Every  mother  has  it 
in  her  power  to  form  the  tastes  and  appetites  of  her 
children.  They  are  always  formed,  but  the  process 
of  re-forming  is  frequently  a  heart-breaking  failure." 
The  teacher  may  have  an  influence  in  this  forming  of 
tastes  and  appetites,  but  not  with  much  effect  until 
he  has  correctly  formed  his  own. 

No  teacher  succeeds  well  who  has  not  learned  to 
control  his  actions  in  all  aspects  of  school  work. 
Many  a  teacher  has  lost  his  opportunities  for  doing 
good  in  a  school  by  lack  of  ability  to  act  calmly  and 


THE    TEACHER.  1595 

reasonably  under  trying  circumstances.  A  success- 
ful teacher  must  guard  his  actions  not  only  under 
trying  circumstances,  but  all  the  time,  even  under 
the  most  usual  circumstances. 

Controlling  one's  language  is  certainly  an  element, 
of  moral  character  under  any  consideration,  but  the 
control  of  the  teacher's  language  is  an  element  of 
great  importance  in  successful  teaching.  A  word  of 
encouragement  here,  a  kind  word  there;  a  word 
of  approval  for  this  effort,  a  word  of  disapproval  for 
lack  of  effort;  a  mild,  pleasing  tone  at  all  times;  such,, 
other  things  equal,  are  among  the  important  elements, 
that  go  to  make  the  ideal  teacher.  Sarcasm,  irony, 
blustering,  boisterous  tones  keyed  to  a  high  pitch  are 
among  the  most  disorganizing  attributes  a  teacher 
can  possess. 

Scholarship. — That  a  teacher  must  possess  schol- 
arship to  teach  at  all  is  unquestioned.  No  one  can 
teach  what  he  does  not  know,  and  it  is  equally  true 
that  no  one  can  teach  well  what  he  does  not  know 
well.  Nothing  gives  more  confidence  to  the  teacher, 
and  nothing  is  more  inspiring  to  the  pupils  than  ta 
know  that  the  teacher  is  master  of  his  subject. 

A  school  subject  is  a  group  of  facts,  these  facts  hav- 
ing a  relation  peculiar  to  that  subject  alone.  The  teacher 
who  is  master  of  his  subject  not  only  sees  these  facts, 
but  he  sees  the  relation  of  these  facts  to  each  other 
and  to  the  subject  as  a  whole.  With  such  a  knowledge 
of  his  subject  the  teacher  sees  the  end  from  the  be- 


160  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

ginning;  he  is  able  to  distinguish  the  important  from 
the  unimportant,  and  to  organize  his  work.  A  lack 
of  scholarship  makes  the  teacher  a  slave  to  the  text- 
book, instead  of  being,  as  he  should  be,  a  source  of 
self -directive  energy  in  the  subject. 

It  is  a  very  deplorable  set  of  conditions  which 
compels  teachers  to  teach  subjects  about  which  they 
know  barely  enough  to  make  a  grade  for  license. 
First  class  teaching  can  never  be  done  under  such 
circumstances. 

Professional  Preparation. — Professional  prepara- 
tion from  the  teacher 's  point  of  view  means  a  mastery 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  of  those  subjects  which 
will  furnish  peculiar  guidance  to  the  teacher  in  his 
actual  work  in  the  schoolroom.  Everyone  who  enters 
the  profession  of  medicine,  law,  or  the  ministry  rec- 
ognizes the  need  of  study  which  will  give  guidance  in 
his  special  work.  That  is  to  say,  men  of  those  pro- 
fessions recognize  the  need  of  special  preparation  for 
professional  work.  This  is  not  less  true  in  the 
teacher's  work  than  in  the  other  professions.  A  brief 
study  shows  that  the  teacher's  professional  prepa- 
ration consists  in  general  of  the  following: 

1.  A  systematic  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  life, 
both  physical  and  mental. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  education. 

3.  A  knowledge  of  current,  approved  methods. 

4.  Practice  in  the  art  of  teaching. 

A  short  study  of  each  of  these  is  beneficial. 


THE    TEACHER.  161 

A  Knowledge  of  the  Laivs  of  Life. — The  laws  of  life 
are  those  truths  of  the  body  and  the  mind  which  all 
physical  and  mental  growth  obeys  during  life.  They 
are  of  two  general  classes:  physical  and  mental.  The 
teacher  learns  physical  laws  in  the  study  of  physi- 
ology and  hygiene;  and  the  mental  laws  are  to  be 
learned  in  the  study  of  psychology. 

The  question  before  us  for  study  is,  Must  the  most 
successful  teacher  have  a  scientific  knowledge  of  psychol- 
ogy, physiology,  and  hygiene?  We  can  study  this 
question  in  the  two  following  ways: 

1.  We  can  depend  upon  our  own  ability  to  think 
it  out  correctly. 

2.  We  can  study  what  our  foremost  educational 
thinkers  have  thought  about  it. 

What  Our  Own  Study  Shoivs. — If  the  teacher  knew 
absolutely  nothing  of  the  laws  of  life,  he  could  not 
teach  school  a  day,  an  hour,  or  even  a  minute.  He 
could  not  tell  whether  beef  or  arsenic  would  be  food; 
whether  a  child  would  be  comfortable  in  an  atmos- 
phere at  the  freezing  point  or  at  the  boiling  point; 
whether  he  would  be  more  comfortable  sitting 
down,  running,  or  standing  on  his  head;  nor  could  he 
decide  on  any  hygienic  or  physiological  question 
whatever  concerning  the  child's  welfare.  Neither 
could  he  tell  how,  when,  or  why  to  teach  any  point  of 
knowledge.  He  would  not  know  whether  to  begin 
the  study  of  algebra,  logic,  or  reading  with  the  child 
of  six  or  with  the  child  of  sixteen.  Without  some 


162  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

knowledge  of  the  laws  of  life,  the  teacher  could  not 
(1)  provide  a  suitable  course  of  study;  (2)  arrange  his 
school  into  classes;  (3)  assign  lessons  suitable  to 
his  classes;  (4)  interpret  his  pupils'  conduct;  (5) 
know  whether  his  pupils  grasp  the  meaning  of  the 
lesson.  In  short,  he  could  not  teach  at  all. 

Therefore,  to  teach  school  at  all  a  teacher  must 
know  something  of  physiology,  hygiene,  and  psychology. 
Everyone  of  course  knows  something  of  these  sub- 
jects, but  the  knowledge  of  most  is  what  is  called 
ordinary  knoivledge,  and  not  scientific  Tcnoivledge.  An 
examination  of  ordinary  knowledge  shows  it  to  be 
possessed  of  the  following  qualities:  it  is  incomplete, 
fragmentary,  unorganized,  contains  many  partial  truths, 
has  error  intermingled  with  the  truth,  and  is  not  usable 
to  as  high  degree  as  it  should  be. 

Scientific  knowledge  is  found  to  be  possessed  of 
the  following  qualities:  it  is  more  complete,  more  con- 
nected, better  organized,  contains  more  whole  truths, 
has  the  error  eliminated  to  a  large  degree,  and  is 
usable  to  a  large  extent. 

Now,  the  question  is,  Which  will  help  the  teacher 
more  in  teaching,  the  ordinary  knowledge  or  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  physiology,  hygiene,  and 
psychology? 

Everyone  knows  something  of  science,  the  knowl- 
edge having  been  picked  up  in  fragments  from  ex- 
perience, but  it  is  not  this  knowledge  which  has  most 
caused  the  progress  of  the  world.  The  knowledge 


THE    TEACHER.  163 

•which  has  caused  civilization  to  move  forward  with 
such  strides  in  the  present  century  has  been  that 
which  was  scientific. 

Thus  the  question  we  started  out  to  study  re- 
duces itself  to  the  following:  First,  a  teacher  must 
have  some  knowledge  of  physiology,  hygiene,  and 
psychology  to  teach  at  all.  Secondly,  the  teacher 
through  everyday  experience  may  acquire  an  ordi- 
nary knowledge  of  these  subjects.  Thirdly,  the 
teacher  may  acquire  through  study  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  these  subjects.  Fourthly,  scientific 
knowledge  is  the  most  valuable  for  guidance.  Fifthly, 
the  teacher  should  have  the  scientific  knowledge  of 
physiology,  hygiene,  and  psychology.  Sixthly,  the 
most  successful  teacher  must  be  an  earnest  student  of 
physiology,  hygiene,  and  psychology. 

Thoughts  of  Teachers. — There  are  two  classes  of 
teachers  who  oppose  the  study  of  psychology  as  a 
part  of  the  teacher's  professional  preparation.  Those 
of  the  first  class  know  something  of  psychology  only 
as  an  abstract  science,  not  as  an  applied  science. 
This  class  sees  nothing  in  psychology  but  discipline, 
because  to  them  there  is  no  such  a  thing  as  educa- 
tional psychology.  There  are  but  few  of  this 
class,  the  most  of  them  having  belonged  to  an  older 
school. 

Those  of  the  second  class,  a  very  large  class, 
know  little  or  no  scientific  psychology,  and  so  oppose 
it,  because  to  acknowledge  the  need  for  it  is  to  ac- 


164  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

knowledge  a  criticism  on  themselves.  With  the 
second  class  the  wish  has  been  father  to  the  thought. 
They  oppose  it  perfectly  consistently.  If  one  knows 
no  psychology,  his  knowledge  of  psychology  certainly 
will  not  help  him  any  in  teaching. 

The  rapid  strides  with  which  pedagogical  work 
has  been  coming  hi  to  schools  of  every  kind  is  evidence 
of  what  is  being  thought  on  this  subject.  Every 
normal  school,  private  and  public,  every  college  and 
university  now  has  its  pedagogical  department.  And 
this  state  of  things  is  very  recent.  Now,  psychology 
is  the  basis  upon  which  the  whole  superstructure  of 
pedagogy  stands. 

Teachers'  examinations  almost  everywhere  now 
demand  a  knowledge  of  professional  subjects,  too. 

Thoughts  of  the  Thinkers. — William  T.  Harris, 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  and  an 
eminent  thinker  and  educator  says:  "If  the  teacher 
knows  nothing  of  psychology  as  a  science,  he  must 
copy  in  detail  the  methods  of  others,  and  rely  on  his 
general  knowledge  of  human  nature  derived  from 
experience.  Like  all  uneducated  workmen,  he  may 
succeed  after  a  sort  by  following  tradition  unaided 
by  science,  but  he  will  not  develop  beyond  a  narrow 
degree  of  perfection  in  details.  He  will  have  no  in- 
sight into  the  general  relations  of  his  work.  He  can 
not  safely  deviate  from  routine,  nor  venture  to  crit- 
icise his  own  work  or  the  work  of  others.  If  he  has 
learned  good  models,  he  may  pass  for  a  good  teacher; 


THE   TEACHER.  165 

if  he  has  learned  bad  ones,  he  is  unable  to  perceive 
their  defects.  Possessing  no  scientific  knowledge  of 
the  mind  he  can  not  lift  himself  above  the  details 
of  his  art  to  the  principles  which  govern  them,  and 
become  himself  an  original  source  of  directive  energy. 
Some  knowledge  of  the  mind  every  successful  teacher 
must  have,  although  in  so  many  cases  it  is  unsystem- 
atic, and  consequently  unscientific." 

Herbert  Spencer,  the  philosopher,  psychologist, 
and  educator,  says:  "Grant  that  the  phenomena  of 
intelligence  conform  to  laws;  grant  that  the  evolution 
of  intelligence  in  a  child  also  conforms  to  laws;  and  it 
follows  inevitably  that  education  can  be  rightly  guided 
only  by  a  knowledge  of  these  laws.  To  suppose  that 
you  can  properly  regulate  this  process  of  forming 
and  accumulating  ideas,  without  understanding  the 
nature  of  the  process,  is  absurd.  How  widely,  then, 
must  teaching  as  it  is,  differ  from  teaching  as  it 
should  be;  when  hardly  any  parents,  and  but  few 
teachers,  know  anything  about  psychology. ' ' 

William  James,  an  eminent  psychologist,  says: 
"It  (a  knowledge  of  psychology)  certainly  narrows 
the  path  for  experiments  and  trials.  We  know  in 
advance,  if  we  are  psychologists,  that  certain  methods 
will  be  wrong,  so  our  psychology  saves  from  mis- 
takes. It  makes  us,  moreover,  more  clear  as  to  what 
we  are  about.  We  gain  confidence  in  respect  to  any 
method  which  we  are  using  as  soon  as  we  believe  that 
it  has  theory  as  well  as  practice  at  its  back.  Most  of 


166  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

all  it  fructifies  our  independence,  and  it  reanimates 
our  interest." 

Without  multiplying  quotations,  let  it  be  sufficient 
to  say  there  is  scarcely  an  educator  of  note  or  good 
reputation  among  civilized  peoples  who  does  not  speak 
in  the  same  general  way  on  this  subject. 

A  knowledge  of  psychology  is  absolutely  no  guaran- 
tee of  a  good  teacher,  but  it  is  just  as  true  tJiat  no  one  can 
be  more  tJian  a  successful  imitator  as  a  teacher  loithout  a 
knowledge  of  psychology.  To  be  an  artist  in  one's 
work  requires  a  mastery  of  the  principles  underlying 
that  work. 

Purpose  of  Education. — The  purpose  of  education 
has  been  studied  before,  but  it  remains  to  study  why 
the  teacher  should  have  as  nearly  correct  views  as 
possible  of  the  purpose  of  education.  And  since  the 
purpose  of  education  and  the  purpose  of  life  are 
the  same,  the  question  to  be  studied  is  the  importance 
of  having  the  correct  view  of  the  purpose  of  life. 

One  may  possibly  wear  his  religion  on  Sundays, 
and  put  it  off  on  week  days.  But  his  view  of  the 
object  to  be  accomplished  by  education  will  show  it- 
self in  all  he  does.  Every  act  in  the  schoolroom  will 
be  affected  by  it.  If  he  has  wrong  ideas  of  the  pur- 
pose of  education,  every  assignment  will  be  tinged  by 
it;  every  recitation  will  be  colored  thereby;  and  every 
correction  or  direction  will  be  affected  by  these  false 
ideas.  If  he  has  right  ideas  of  life  and  education, 
they  will  manifest  themselves  in  all  his  school  work. 


THE    TEACHER.  167 

If  he  has  no  definite  ideas  of  the  purpose  of  education 
and  life,  his  work  will  be  purposeless,  scattering, 
disorganized,  and  fragmentary.  A  clear,  fervent 
purpose  will  draw  the  teacher's  work  toward  its  ac- 
complishment as  surely  as  the  magnet  attracts  the 
particles  of  steel. 

Knowledge  of  Methods.— The  teacher  should  know 
current  approved  methods  of  teaching  the  various 
school  subjects.  The  notion  that  students  can  grad- 
uate from  the  primary  school  or  the  high  school  and 
go  into  the  schools  and  teach  well  without  having 
studied  approved  methods  is  entirely  wrong,  and 
baneful,  and  pernicious  in  its  influences.  The  ap- 
pallingly bad  work  done  by  such  teachers  all  over  the 
country  is  evidence  of  this  truth. 

It  is  still  held  by  many  that  if  the  teacher  knows 
his  subject  well  this  is  a  guarantee  that  he  will  teach 
it  well.  This,  however,  is  not  at  all  necessarily  true. 
Nothing  is  commoner  in  school  work  than  teachers 
who  know  their  subjects  well,  but  who  teach  poorly. 

"The  professional  training  of  teachers  is  not 
generally  high.  Many  people  still  entertain  the  idea 
that  to  know  a  subject  is  a  guarantee  of  the  ability  to 
teach  it.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  demonstrate  the  fallacy  of 
this  notion  to  those  who  are  ignorant  of  the  laws  that 
govern  the  workings  of  the  human  mind." 

The  teacher  who  knows  the  method  of  teaching 
any  subject  knows  (1)  the  means  to  be  used;  (2)  how  cor- 
rectly to  use  them;  (3)  the  natural  processes  of  the 
learner's  mind  in  learning  that  subject. 


168  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

To  any  one  who  will  think  it  is  plain  that  to  know 
this  is  of  equal  importance  with  knowing  well  the 
subject.  This  point  will  receive  full  study  in  chapter 
IX. 

Practice  in  the  Art  of  Teaching. — One  becomes 
skillful  in  doing  anything  by  practice.  Thus  one 
becomes  skillful  in  writing  by  practice  in  writing; 
skillful  in  riding  a  bicycle  by  riding;  skillful  hi  skating 
by  skating;  skillful  in  ball-playing  by  playing  ball. 
This  is  a  principle  that  holds  true  in  the  acquirement 
of  any  art.  And  since  teaching  is  an  art,  the  principle 
applies  to  it.  So  a  teacher  to  become  skillful  must 
have  practice  in  the  art  of  teaching.  This  practice 
may  be  obtained  in  two  ways: 

1.  A  student  may  obtain  it  by  teaching  as  a 
student- teacher  under  the  direction  of  a  skillful  train- 
ing-teacher in  a  training  school. 

2.  A  teacher  may  obtain  it  by  teaching  in  his 
own  school  without  having  had  any  practice  before, 
and  thus  acquire  the  skill  by  experience  without  the 
direction  of  a  training- teacher. 

It  is  evident  that  learning  to  teach  in  the  latter 
way  is  pretty  hard  on  the  pupils  upon  which  the 
teacher  practices.  It  is  too  much  a  matter  of  experi- 
ment, and  is  very  much  like  a  physician's  learning  to 
practice  medicine  by  experimenting  upon  his  pa- 
tients. But  everywhere  almost  the  children  in  our 
schools  are  victims  of  such  experimenting. 


THE    TEACHER. 


It  is  truly  a  deplorable  set  of  conditions  which 
compels  persons  to  teach  who  have  merely  enough 
education  in  the  subjects  to  secure  licenses,  and  it  is- 
certainly  not  a  less  deplorable  set  of  conditions  which 
compels  teachers  to  experiment  thus  with  the  inno- 
cent lives  of  our  children. 

Energetic  Student  Habits.  —  The  living  teacher  is  a. 
constant  worker.  He  ever  keeps  before  him  a  high 
degree  of  excellence  in  all  lines  of  work  toward  which 
he  constantly  strives.  A  teacher  never  reaches  a, 
place  in  his  school  work  where  he  can  safely  rest  on 
the  oars  and  drift.  There  is  absolutely  no  way  to- 
have  a  thorough,  fresh  knowledge  of  the  subjects 
taught;  to  keep  in  mind  the  best  educational  methods 
and  ideals;  to  maintain  a  healthful  interest  in  one's 
profession  but  by  constant  industrious  student  habits. 
Everything  that  lives  progresses,  and  nothing  makes 
progress  more  rapidly  than  the  science  and  art  of 
education.  One  as  a  teacher  simply  can  not  rely  upon 
his  past  preparation  to  guide  him  safely  and  success- 
fully through  in  his  teaching.  He  must  keep  up  with. 
educational  progress  or  he  will  be  an  "old  fogy  "  and 
a  "fossil"  sooner  than  he  is  aware.  The  educational 
world  demands  thoughtful,  progressive  teachers. 

"To  reach  the  port  of  heaven,  we  must  sail  some- 
times with  the  wind  and  sometimes  against  it,  —  but 
we  must  sail,  and  not  drift  nor  lie  at  anchor.  " 

Daily  Preparation.  —  No  teacher  can  succeed  well 
without  the  habit  of  preparing  his  lessons  for  his. 


170  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

daily  recitations,  and  for  this  reason  the  habit  of 
daily  preparation  is  regarded  a  necessary  character- 
istic of  the  teacher.  A  teacher  never  gets  to  a  point 
where  he  knows  a  subject  so  well  that  he  can  do  his 
best  work  without  making  special  preparation  for 
each  lesson.  This  is  true  for  several  reasons.  First, 
no  lesson  is  ever  taught  at  any  two  times  under  the 
same  set  of  circumstances.  Students  to  whom 
the  lessons  are  to  be  taught  will  vary  in  capacity  and 
other  particulars.  So  each  lesson  must  be  prepared 
with  the  view  of  teaching  it  to  the  particular  class  one 
has,  if  the  very  best  teaching  is  to  be  done. 

Secondly,  a  teacher  who  teaches  without  daily 
preparation  shows  staleness  in  his  work;  his  teaching 
lacking  all  the  freshness,  vigor,  and  interest  born  of 
seeing  something  new  in  the  subject.  This  results 
from  the  fact  that  going  over  the  same  thing  again 
and  again  without  seeing  anything  new  of  necessity 
grows  monotonous  and  uninteresting.  While  on  the 
other  hand  no  one  ever  knows  a  subject  so  well  but 
that  he  can  see  something  new  in  it  by  his  study  in 
daily  preparation. 

Thirdly,  for  most  teachers  it  is  the  only  means  of 
mitigating  the  evils  which  usually  result  from  a  lack 
of  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught. 

The  teacher  who  will  succeed  best  is  the  one  who 
"gets  out"  his  lessons  daily.  This  he  expects  of  his 
students,  and  this  his  students  have  a  right  to  expect 
of  him. 


THE    TEACHER.  171 

Love  of  Occupation. — Every  one  knows  with  how 
much  more  zest  work  which  one  likes  to  do  is  done 
than  work  which  one  does  not  like  to  do.  Too  many 
teachers  make  teaching  a  mere  stepping-stone  to 
some  other  kind  of  work,  and  so  do  not  put  their 
hearts  into  it  and  really  prepare  themselves  for  the 
work.  Not  being  in  love  with  teaching  is  largely 
the  cause  of  this. 

No  teacher  who  does  not  like  to  teach  school  can 
show  so  much  interest,  enthusiasm,  aggressiveness, 
and  progressiveness  in  his  work  as  he  would  if  he 
loved  it.  Love  for  the  work  lightens  the  labor;  it  puts 
the  spirit  of  life  into  it.  Otherwise  teaching  becomes 
the  veriest  drudgery,  a  thing  to  be  endured  only. 

Sympathy  with  Children.  —  Sympathy  with  chil- 
dren has  been  regarded  by  many  great  educators  as 
the  highest  and  most  essential  characteristic  of  the 
teacher.  The  ability  of  the  teacher  to  rejoice  with 
his  students  in  their  joys  and  triumphs,  to  grieve 
wdth  them  in  their  grief,  in  short,  to  be  in  sympa- 
thetic touch  with  their  lives  in  all  phases  is  the 
characteristic  above  all  others  that  enables  the  teacher 
to  touch  the  lives  of  his  children  and  uplift  them. 
Such  a  teacher  is  one  of  heart  power — the  one  who 
can  love  every  child,  the  erring  and  wayward  as  well 
as  the  good. 

It  is  unfortunate  for  the  children  that  circum- 
stances are  such  that  teachers  largely  teach  school  at 
a  period  of  life  when  they  have  the  least  sympathy 


172  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

for  children.  From  sixteen  to  thirty  is  the  period  in 
life  in  which  young  men  and  young  women  have  the 
least  sympathy  for  children.  This  is  the  period  in 
which  young  men  and  young  women  are  most  inter- 
ested in  themselves  and  in  each  other.  Before  sixteen 
and  after  about  thirty  they  have  more  sympathy  with 
children.  But  between  sixteen  and  thirty  is  the 
period  in  which  a  large  majority  of  teachers  do  their 
teaching. 

Sympathy  for  child  life  is  idealized  in  the  follow- 
ing, said  to  have  been  found  among  the  unpublished 
papers  of  Charles  Dickens,  the  great  educator  and 
lover  of  children: 

They  are  idols  of  hearts  and  of  households; 
They  are  angels  of  God  in  disguise; 
His  sunshine  still  sleeps  in  their  tresses; 
His  glory  still  beams  in  their  eyes. 

Those  shouts  of  home  and  of  heaven 
Have  made  me  more  manly  and  mild, 
And  I  now  know  how  Jesus  could  liken 
The  Kingdom  of  God  to  a  child. 

My  heart  grows  as  tender  as  woman's, 
And  the  fountains  of  feeling  will  flow, 
When  I  think  of  the  paths  steep  and  stony 
Where  the  feet  of  these  dear  ones  must  go. 

O,  the  mountains  of  sin  that  o'er-hang  them ! 
O,  the  tempests  of  fate  blowing  wild ! 
But  I  know  there's  nothing  on  earth  more  holy 
Than  the  innocent  heart  of  a  child. 

Desirable  Characteristics^  Though  Not  Absolutely 
Necessary. — There  are  several  characteristics  which 


THE    TEACHER  173 

greatly  facilitate  a  teacher's  success,  but  which  not 
allteachers  can  possess,  and  without  which  success 
in  teaching  may  still  be  attained.  A  few  of  the  most 
important  of  these  will  be  briefly  studied:  1.  Good 
health.  2.  Natural  aptitude.  3.  Personal  magnet- 
ism. 4.  Mastery  of  the  circumstances. 

Good  Health. — The  relation  between  the  mind  and 
body  is  so  close  that  whatever  in  any  way  affects  the 
efficiency  of  bodily  functions  also  affects  the  mind. 
Dispositions  and  temperaments  are  results  of  bodily 
conditions.  To  do  one's  best  work  of  any  kind  requires 
a  healthy,  vigorous,  vivacious  condition  of  the  nervous, 
digestive,  circulatory,  respiratory,  and  muscular 
systems.  Aggressive,  vigorous,  efficient  work  is  the 
accompaniment  of  good  health. 

Ill  health  on  the  other  hand  induces  weakness  of 
effort,  irritability  of  mind,  despondent  and  depressed 
states  of  spirit,  discouragement  and  dreariness  fatal 
to  all  successful  teaching  and  school  government.  Ill 
health  makes  all  work  drudgery,  amusement  a  bore, 
and  life  a  misery  and  a  failure.  The  longer  one  lives 
the  more  fully  he  appreciates  this  fact. 

Therefore,  one  of  the  highest  duties  towards  his 
school  is  for  the  teacher  to  make  all  reasonable  ex- 
ertion to  keep  his  health  uniformly  excellent. 

Natural  Aptitude. — No  doubt  there  are  persons 
who  are  to  some  extent  natural  teachers;  that  is,  are 
naturally  adapted  to  teaching,  while  others  have  no 
natural  ability  as  a  teacher.  There  are  persons  who 


174  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

naturally  show  an  aptitude  in  music,  while  others  can 
never  reach  any  marked  degree  of  proficiency  in 
music.  The  same  is  without  doubt  true  of  teachers. 
This  natural  aptitude  is  a  very  desirable  character- 
istic, and  one  that  must  be  possessed  by  every  teacher 
to  some  extent,  but  it  is  one  which  not  all,  not  even  a 
majority  of  teachers,  possess  to  a  large  extent.  That 
most  persons  can  become  good  teachers  with  proper 
preparation  is  an  encouraging  truth.  However,  it  is 
just  as  true  that  there  are  some  who  when  they  at- 
tempt to  teach  have  entirely  missed  their  calling. 
There  are  some  whose  native  ability  for  teaching  is 
such  that  they  will  never  succeed  at  this  work.  Such 
people,  who  may  be  most  excellent  men  and  women, 
may  succeed  well  at  some  other  line  of  work.  Froebel 
and  Pestalozzi  succeeded  well  at  nothing  else  but 
teaching. 

Personal  Magnetism. — This  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  teacher  which  draws  people  to  him.  It  is  the 
endowment  of  the  teacher  which  makes  friends  for 
him  both  in  school  and  out  of  school.  It  is  not,  as 
some  suppose,  altogether  an  endowment  with  which 
one  is  born.  It  may  be  attained  to  by  painstaking  care. 
Some  of  the  elements  which  go  to  make  it  up  are 
general  friendliness,  sympathy,  courtesy,  charity ',  frank- 
ness, and  pleasant  greeting.  These  elements  may  all 
or  any  of  them  be  attained  by  careful  cultivation. 

Mastery  of  Circumstances. — By  a  mastery  of  cir- 
cumstances is  meant  the  ability  of  doing  the  proper 


THE    TEACHER.  175 

thing  next  under  any  set  of  circumstances.  There 
are  persons  who  seem  never  to  know  what  to  do  next 
under  any  set  of  circumstances  except  the  most  usual, 
while  again  there  are  persons  who  seem  always  to 
know  what  to  do  in  any  set  of  circumstances.  Now 
the  teacher  has  much  need  of  belonging  to  the  latter 
class,  for  a  school  is  a  place  famous  for  the  uprising 
of  unusual  circumstances.  A  teacher  must  possess 
the  ability  to  some  extent  to  meet  the  occasion,  other- 
wise he  can  hardly  get  along  for  a  day.  But  perhaps 
not  all  can  possess  this  characteristic  to  the  extent 
desired. 

Illustration. — A  student  upon  an  occasion  of  fail- 
ure in  recitation  in  a  class,  insisted  he  had  no  right 
to  believe  what  he  could  not  see  with  his  eyes.  Vari- 
ous illustrations  were  given  by  the  teacher  to  show 
that  the  position  taken  by  the  student  was  not  only 
untenable  but  unreasonable.  The  student  would  not 
be  convinced  of  his  error.  The  teacher  mildly  and 
pleasantly  asked  the  student  if  he  believed  he  had  a, 
brain.  A  smile  went  around  the  class  and  the 
student  took  his  seat  without  a  word. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

Importance  of. — There  is  no  subject  that  enlists 
the  attention  of  the  teacher  of  more  far-reaching  im- 
portance than  this  one  of  school  government.  Upon 
the  successful  solution  of  the  question,  How  best 
manage  a  school?  depends  the  efficiency  of  all  the 
school  processes.  The  teacher  who  fails  in  school 
government  fails  in  all,  because  all  other  aspects  of 
school  work  bear  an  organic  relation  to  school  man- 
agement and  their  efficiency  depends  upon  it.  To  the 
beginning  teacher  it  is  the  most  vital  school  question. 
It  is  the  rock  upon  which  more  teachers  in  their 
careers  have  been  shipwrecked  than  upon  any  other. 
It  has  caused  more  sleepless  nights,  more  shattered 
nervous  systems,  more  hot,  scalding  tears  than  any 
other  aspect  of  school  work. 

Kinds  of  School  Government. — There  are  to  be 
found  in  school  two  kinds  of  school  government:  gov- 
ernment by  force,  or  fear,  and  government  by  direc- 
tion rather  than  by  suppression.  The  following 
names  are  respectively  appropriate:  1.  Police  gov- 
ernment. 2.  Rational  government. 

Police  government  is  by  physical  force,  or  by  fear 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  Such  government  is  always 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  177 

accompanied  by  a  great  deal  of  friction  and  bad  feel- 
ing. It  does  little  or  nothing  toward  giving  the  pupil 
habits  of  right  self-control  and  self -direction,  the  end 
of  all  school  government. 

Rational  government  aims  to  lead  the  pupils  to 
do  right  because  they  love  the  right.  It  is  to  be 
accomplished  by  reasonable  means  of  firmness,  kind- 
ness, and  justice.  It  accomplishes  much  toward 
making  pupils  self-governing,  toward  giving  them 
habits  of  right  self-control  and  right  self-direction. 

The  School  an  Organization. — In  the  study  of  the 
nature  of  the  school  in  a  previous  chapter,  it  was  seen 
that  the  school  is  an  organization,  and  that  the  ideas 
which  are  to  be  found  in  an  organization,  according  to 
the  best  use  of  the  term,  are: 

1.  It  is  a  complex  whole. 

2.  This  whole  is  made  up  of  individual  parts. 

3.  These  parts  have  a  harmonious  working  re- 
lation. 

4.  These  parts  work  for  one  common  end. 

5.  The  whole  is  self-acting  and  self-adjusting. 

The  school  is  made  up  of  pupil,  teacher,  cur- 
riculum, school  officers,  etc.,  all  constituting  a  com- 
plex whole,  the  individual  parts  being  patrons,  school 
officers,  children,  teacher,  etc.  These  all  work  to- 
gether in  such  a  way  as  not  to  produce  friction,  and 
so  as  to  economize  energy  as  far  as  possible.  This  is 
what  is  meant  by  a  harmonious  working  relation. 
The  education  of  the  learner  is  the  common  end  for 


178  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

which  all  these  parts  work.  The  school  as  a  whole 
acts — originates  its  program,  classes,  recitations,  and 
sets  up  ideals  and  strives  to  attain  them; it  also,  when 
it  gets  out  of  order,  proceeds  to  adjust  its  own  diffi- 
culties. In  this  way  it  is  self-acting  and  self-ad- 
justing. 

The  Fundamental  Law. — When  the  school  is  doing 
the  work  of  educating  the  pupils  the  most  efficiently, 
it  is  found  to  be  when  there  is  the  most  unity  in  it. 
And  when  it  is  doing  its  work  the  most  poorly,  it  is 
found  to  be  when  there  is  the  greatest  lack  of  unity. 
Then  the  law  underlying  all  the  complex  activities  of 
the  school  to  which  they  conform  in  order  to  contrib- 
ute to  the  highest  success  of  the  school,  is  the  laio  of 
unity. 

By  unity  is  meant  that  any  act  of  any  element  of 
the  school  furthers  any  other  act  of  the  same  element  or 
any  act  of  a  different  element  toioard  the  accomplishment 
of  the  purpose  of  the  school. 

It  is  evident  that  unity  is  the  thing  which  will 
contribute  to  the  success  of  the  school  always.  And 
it  is  equally  evident  that  if  one  element  of  the  school 
so  acts  that  his  activity  antagonizes  the  acts  of  any 
other  element,  or  other  acts  of  his  own  that  it  works 
against  the  success  of  the  school — it  breaks  the  law 
of  unity. 

From  the  study  so  far  the  hint  is  that  the  problem 
involved  in  school  management  is  the  maintenance  of 
the  law  of  unity. 


THE   MANAGEMENT  OP  THE  SCHOOL.  179 

Source  of  the  Laic. — The  laws  of  any  organization 
are  inherent  in  the  organization  and  are  not  externally 
imposed.  The  law  that  determines  that  the  plumule, 
the  growing  point  of  the  stem  of  the  plant,  grows 
toward  sunlight  and  air,  and  the  law  that  determines 
that  the  radix,  the  growing  point  of  the  root,  grows 
from  the  sunlight  and  air  are  in  the  inherent  nature 
of  the  plant.  No  externally  imposed  conditions  can 
change  the  laws.  The  botanist  can  discover  these 
and  many  other  laws  of  plant  life,  but  he  can  make  no 
laws  for  the  plant.  No  one  can  legislate  for  the  plant. 
Legislatures  and  parliaments  might  pass  a  law  that 
hereafter  plants  should  grow,  blossom,  and  produce 
fruit  without  moisture,  sunshine,  and  heat,  and  all 
nations  of  the  earth  might  ratify  this  law,  but  the 
plants  would  go  on  in  their  own  seemingly  stubborn 
way,  and  demand  for  their  growth,  heat,  light,  and 
moisture. 

The  law  of  the  school  is  as  much  a  part  of  the 
nature  of  the  school  as  the  laws  of  plant  life  are  a 
part  of  the  nature  of  the  plant. 

Rules. — The  various  aspects  of  the  law  of  unity 
are  rightly  to  be  considered  the  rules  of  the  school. 
Some  writers  have  attempted  to  make  a  distinction 
between  the  law  of  the  school  and  the  rules  of  the 
school.  It  has  been  said  that  a  rule  of  the  school  is 
an  externally  imposed  regulation  made  by  the  teacher, 
director,  trustee,  or  superintendent,  and  that  a  law 
of  the  school  is  some  truth  inherent  in  the  nature  of 


180  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  school  according  to  which  the  various  elements 
act.  This  is  not  a  true  distinction;  and  to  attempt  to 
make  such  a  distinction  is  bad,  because  it  is  a  source 
of  mischief.  The  right  meaning  of  a  rule  is,  that  it  is 
a  minor  law.  The  various  aspects  of  the  law  of  unity 
are  thus  the  rules  of  the  school.  The  following  is  a 
formal  statement  for  it:  A  rule  of  the  school  is  some 
aspect  of  the  laiv  of  unity. 

The  correct  ideas  of  the  law  and  the  rules  of  the 
school  should  be  thoroughly  fixed  in  the  lives  of  pupils 
and  teacher. 

Aspects  of  the  Law. — An  analysis  of  the  law  of 
unity  in  the  school  reveals  various  lines  of  unity  to  be 
sought,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

1.  Unity  in  the  organization  as  a  whole. 

2.  Unity  between  teacher  and  pupil. 

3.  Unity  between  the  pupil's  real  and  ideal  self. 

Before  taking  up  the  study  of  each  of  these  in 
detail,  it  is  worth  while  to  notice  that  this  is  only  a 
very  general  analysis.  A  minute  analysis  would  re- 
veal almost  an  endless  number  of  aspects  of  the  law 
of  unity.  For  instance,  there  must  be  unity  between 
patrons  and  teacher;  between  patrons  and  children; 
among  school  officers;  between  the  school  officers  and 
teacher;  between  the  school  officers  and  children, 
and  among  the  children  themselves.  Each  one  of 
these  unities  might  in  turn  be  further  analyzed. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OP  THE  SCHOOL.  181 

Unity  in  the  Organization  as  a  Whole. — There  is 
complete  unity  in  the  organization  as  a  whole  when 
every  element  of  it  is  so  acting  that  each  act  furthers 
the  influence  of  any  other  act  of  any  element  toward  the 
accomplishment  of  the  common  end — the  education  of 
the  learner. 

The  thought  of  what  unity  in  the  school  as  a 
whole  consists  of  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  every 
conscious  element  in  the  school.  If  this  thought  can 
be  so  firmly  fixed  in  the  minds  of  each  person — 
teacher,  learner,  school  officers,  and  patrons — con- 
nected with  the  school  that  it  will  become  a  part  of 
his  life,  the  government  of  the  school  will  be  largely 
accomplished. 

An  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  the  law  of 
unity  in  the  organization  as  a  whole  will  reveal  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  the  learner  alone,  as  usually  thought, 
who  violates  the  rules  of  the  school,  but  almost  as 
often  the  teacher,  the  patrons,  or  the  school  hoard. 

Legislators  themselves  may  break  the  rules  of 
the  school  by  making  "school  laws"  that  break  the 
unity  of  the  school,  and  militate  against  the  integrity 
and  efficiency  of  school  work.  It  thus  appears  that 
there  is  a  distinction  between  the  law  of  the  school 
and  what  often  goes  into  the  statutes  as  "school  laws. " 

When  a  school  board  secures  a  teacher  for  any 
other  reason  than  because  of  the  ability  of  that 
teacher  to  do  good  teaching,  its  members  break  the 
law  of  the  school.  That  teachers  should  be  chosen 


182  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

from  any  other  consideration  than  their  ability  to 
minister  to  the  lives  of  their  pupils  is  a  pernicious 
doctrine  which  should  have  the  condemnation  of  all 
honest  and  sensible  people  in  the  strongest  possible 
terms.  Poverty,  patronage,  nepotism,  machine  pol- 
itics, church  influences,  and  so  on,  of  themselves 
should  have  absolutely  no  place  in  the  considerations 
when  a  teacher  is  to  be  chosen.  A  school  board  will 
hire  a  teacher  year  after  year  wholly  incompetent  and 
unfit  for  a  teacher,  because  she  is  poor  and  has  an 
invalid  mother;  they  will  not  hire  competent  and  pro- 
ficient married  ladies  to  teach  because  perchance  a 
married  lady  who  teaches  will  support  her  worthless 
husband.  Or  they  will  trade  patronage,  a  teacher 
being  hired  because  she  trades  at  the  store  which  is 
owned  by  a  member  of  the  board.  Such  school 
boards  are  the  worst  enemies  of  the  schools  and  the 
children  who  are  in  them.  There  is  no  economy,  no 
justice,  nor  common  sense  in  thus  injuring  the  lives 
of  a  room-full  of  children,  thirty  or  forty,  year  after 
year,  in  order  to  furnish  a  place  for  a  teacher  who  is 
incompetent. 

One  gets  heart- sick  at  the  incompetency,  dis- 
honesty, or  imbecility  of  a  school  board  which  will 
take  into  consideration  the  many  things  brought  to 
bear  to  secure  places  for  incompetent  teachers  even 
at  the  disregard  of  the  influence  on  the  growing  lives 
of  the  children.  The  doctrine  that  sets  anything 
above  the  welfare  of  the  pupils  in  the  choice  of  teach- 
ers is  wholly  indefensible. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  183 

In  this  manner  is  the  law  of  the  school  broken  by 
school  boards  to  their  everlasting  dishonor  and  dis- 
grace; and  the  conditions  of  our  school  system  which 
permit  this  pernicious  custom  constitute  the  most 
serious  defect  of  the  American  schools  to-day,  one 
whose  influence  is  baneful  alike  to  pupils  and  teachers. 

The  Pmver  of  Sentiment. — By  sentiment  is  meant 
a  feeling  for  or  against  anything  because  of  a  knowl- 
edge concerning  that  thing.  Sentiment  is  a  powerful 
factor  in  controlling  people's  lives  and  actions.  In 
fact  life  is  almost  wholly  controlled  by  sentiment. 

A  certain  church  community  has  a  sentiment 
against  an  organ  in  church,  and  a  pastor  comes  and 
lauds  the  advantages  of  the  church  organ.  One  can 
easily  judge  the  standing  of  that  pastor  in  that  com- 
munity. The  same  sermon  might  be  preached  in 
another  community  with  most  satisfactory  results. 
In  a  town  now  in  mind  almost  everyone  plays  at 
cards,  and  any  new-comer  who  refuses  to  play  is 
regarded  as  unsociable  and  ridiculous.  The  best 
church  people  in  this  town  do  not  object  to  cards,  so 
to  play  at  cards  has  no  bad  effect  upon  one's  reputa- 
tion in  this  town.  In  another  town  now  in  mind,  to 
play  at  cards  is  placed  in  the  category  of  heinous 
crimes,  so  to  play  at  cards  here  would  ruin  one's 
reputation  and  destroy  his  usefulness  in  this  com- 
munity. What  is  the  difference  hi  the  two  places? 
The  answer  is  a  difference  in  sentiment. 

Since  sentiment  is  thus  so  strong  a  factor  in 
determining  people's  actions,  it  may  be  made  use  of 


184  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

very  advantageously  in  school  government.  If  there 
is  some  line  of  conduct  which  breaks  the  law  of  unity 
in  the  school,  the  most  potent,  as  well  as  the  most 
rational,  means  of  controlling  it  is  to  establish  a  sen- 
timent against  it  in  the  school.  And  if  there  is  some 
line  of  conduct  beneficial  to  the  school,  the  surest  way 
of  introducing  and  maintaining  it  is  to  establish  a 
sentiment  in  favor  of  it. 

The  Main  Line  of  School  Government. — It  will  be 
found  then  that  the  main  work  of  the  teacher  in  school 
government  is  to  establish  a  proper  sentiment  with 
respect  to  the  following  five  points: 

1.  The  law  of  the  school  is  inherent  in  the  school 
because  of  the  pupil's  part  in  it. 

2.  The  pupils  as  much  as  the  teacher  help  to 
make  the  rules  of  the  school. 

3.  The  teacher,  pupils,  school  officers,  or  patrons 
may  break  a  rule  of  the  school. 

4.  The  pupils  as  well  as  the  teacher  help  to  keep 
the  rules  of  the  school  intact 

5.  The  ultimate  object  of  the  school  is  the  high- 
est good  of  each  pupil. 

If  teachers  can  establish  a  strong  sentiment  for 
that  which  is  wanted  and  against  that  which  is 
not  wanted  in  school  the  government  of  the  school 
-will  largely  care  for  itself. 

"The  main  line  of  work  running  through  the 
management  of  a  school  is  that  of  developing  in 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF   THE  SCHOOL.  185 

the  thought  of  the  pupil  the  laws  which  are  in  the 
school  because  of  his  membership  in  it." 

Behavior,  or  Conduct. — Behavior  in  school  is  often 
thought  of  as  applying  merely  to  the  student,  but  a 
true  view  shows  that  conduct  with  reference  to  the 
school  involves  the  actions  of  the  teacher,  pupil,  pa- 
tron, or  school  officer.  Conduct  in  school  is  one's  bear- 
ing toward  the  unity  in  the  school.  Good  conduct  is 
that  which  maintains  or  tends  to  maintain  the  unity 
in  school;  bad  conduct  is  that  which  breaks  or  tends 
to  break  the  unity  in  school.  That  which  is  good 
behavior  is  right  in  school,  and  bad  behavior  is  wrong 
in  school. 

Illustration. — Whispering  as  a  rule  is  wrong  in 
school,  because  it  breaks  the  unity  in  several  ways. 
First,  it  breaks  the  unity  between  the  teacher  and 
the  pupil,  because  it  is  discourteous  to  the  teacher; 
and  when  the  pupil  whispers  he  breaks  the  unity  of 
thought  between  his  own  mind  and  the  mind  of  the 
teacher.  Secondly,  it  disturbs  others  in  the  class,  is 
noisy,  and  disorderly.  Every  teacher  should  set  the 
stamp  of  strong  disapproval  upon  whispering  in 
school  by  showing  the  students  that  they  are  much 
more  gentlemanly  and  lady-like  without  it. 

Unity  between  Teacher  and  Learner. — It  is  in  the 
unity  between  the  teacher  and  the  learner  that  the 
life  of  the  learner  comes  into  vital  touch  with  the  life 
of  the  teacher.  There  is  unity  between  the  teacher 
and  the  learner  when  there  is  a  mutual  furtherance  in 
their  acts  toward  the  education  of  the  learner. 


186  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

This  unity  has  an  important  influence  upon  suc- 
cessful teaching.  No  teacher  can  do  his  best  teaching 
to  a  student  when  he  is  aware  that  there  is  antagonism 
between  that  student  and  himself — when  he  does  not 
like  the  student  or  when  he  knows  the  student  does 
not  like  him.  And  no  student  can  do  his  best  work 
for  a  teacher  when  he  does  not  like  the  teacher  or 
when  he  knows  the  teacher  does  not  like  him.  From 
which  it  results  that  the  teacher  should  make  all 
reasonable  efforts  to  maintain  cordial  relations  be- 
tween himself  and  his  students.  These  cordial  re- 
lations should  manifest  themselves  at  all  times  both 
in  the  recitation  and  out,  if  this  unity  is  to  be  main- 
tained. 

Unity  between  the  Learner's  Real  and  Ideal  Self. — 
There  is  unity  between  the  learner's  real  and  ideal 
self  when  each  act  of  his  life  lifts  him  from  a  lower  to 
a  higher  plane  of  living;  when  through  his  action  the 
/  am  becomes  constantly  what  was  the  /  ought  just 
before  the  act. 

Prom  this  it  appears  that  constant,  perfect  unity 
between  the  real  and  ideal  self  of  the  learner  can 
never  be  more  than  approximated,  for  to  attain  to 
such  unity  constantly  would  be  an  ideal  growth  to- 
ward self-realization. 

To  make  the  learner  conscious  that  every  act  of 
his  life  leaves  a  permanent  effect  and  influence  on  his 
life,  and  that  every  act  which  brings  about  unity  be- 
tween his  real  and  ideal  self  influences  him  for  good, 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  187 

and  that  every  act  which  breaks  this  unity  or  tends 
to  break  it  affects  him  for  the  worse,  is  to  make  him 
conscious  of  the  disturbing  struggle  in  life.  When 
the  learner  sees  and  fervently  feels  the  nature  of  this 
struggle  he  is  naturally  unwilling  to  do  those  things 
which  will  degrade  him,  but  aspires  to  a  higher  life 
constantly. 

Thus  in  maintaining  the  unity  between  the 
student's  real  and  ideal  self,  the  school  is  fixing  the 
habit  with  him  of  right  living  under  any  circumstan- 
ces. And  this — to  give  the  learner  the  habit  of  self-con- 
trol and  right  self-direction — is  the  ultimate  end  of  all 
school  government. 

Unifying  Conditions. — Unity  in  school  is  not  best 
attained  directly,  but  is  best  attained  indirectly  by 
establishing  unifying  conditions.  With  the  proper 
unifying  conditions  established  unity  follows  as  a 
natural  result.  Thus  the  establishing  of  unifying 
conditions  is  a  means  to  unity  as  an  end. 

Unifying  conditions  might  be  analyzed  into  many 
aspects,  but  time  will  permit  the  study  of  only  the 
following  important  aspects: 

1.  Unifying  conditions  in  the  organization  as  a 
whole. 

2.  Unifying    conditions    between    teacher    and 
learner. 

3.  Unifying  conditions   between  the  learner's 
real  and  ideal  self. 


188  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

Unifying  Conditions  in  the  Organization  as  a  Whole. 
— Unity  in  the  organization  as  a  whole  means  that  all 
the  elements  of  the  school  so  act  that  each  act  fur- 
thers the  influence  of  any  other  activity  of  any  element 
toward  the  accomplishment  of  the  common  object — 
the  education  of  the  learner. 

Now,  what  is  the  condition  which  preeminently 
brings  about  this  unity?  The  answer  to  this  question 
is,  the  condition  above  all  others  for  unity  in  the 
organization  as  a  whole  is  the  proper  sentiment  to- 
ward the  nature  of  the  school  and  its  work;  that  is, 
the  proper  sentiment  toward  the  following  points  as 
stated  before: 

1.  The  law  of  the  school  is  inherent  in  the  school 
because  of  the  pupil's  part  in  it. 

2.  The  pupils  as  much  as  the  teacher  help  to 
make  the  rules  of  the  school. 

3.  The  teacher,  pupils,  school  officers,  or  patrons 
may  break  a  rule  of  the  school. 

4.  The  pupils  as  well  as  the  teacher  help  to  keep 
the  rules  of  the  school  intact. 

5.  The  ultimate  object  of  the  school  is  the  high- 
est good  of  each  pupil. 

This  condition  estimates  every  act  of  every  ele- 
ment of  the  school  in  terms  of  its  ministry  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  pupils.  It  means  the  best  is  none  too  good 
for  the  pupil.  The  best  teacher,  the  best  school  house, 
the  best  books,  the  best  school  board,  the  best 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  189 

superintendent,  and  the  best  apparatus  are  due  the 
pupils. 

And  any  school  officer,  teacher,  or  superintend- 
ent who  purposely,  or  through  neglect,  does  less  than 
to  strenuously  exert  himself  to  secure  those  con- 
ditions is  not  loyal  to  the  charge  entrusted  to  him. 

Conditions  of  Unity  bettveen  Teacher  and  Pupils. — 
The  most  important  condition  of  unity  between 
teacher  and  pupils  is  the  spirit  of  good  will  and  cor- 
diality— the  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  that  their 
teacher  is  earnestly  trying  to  do  them  good,  and  the 
feeling  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  the  students 
believe  that  he  is  earnestly  trying  to  help  them  on 
toward  a  wise  and  virtuous  life.  This  spirit  in  school 
is  the  most  potent  condition  of  unity  between  the 
teacher  and  his  pupils. 

A  second  important  condition  of  unity  between 
the  teacher  and  pupils  is  the  school-room.  It  is  the 
place  where  the  outward  form  of  unity  in  the  school 
is  maintained.  It  is  the  place  where  the  students 
come  together  for  the  work  of  the  school,  and  it  may 
be  made  a  positive  influence  for  securing  unity. 

"It  must  be  more  than  a  secure,  quiet,  and  com- 
fortable meeting-place  for  teacher  and  pupil;  it  must 
have  a  positively  elevating  influence,  bringing  the 
pupil,  by  its  active  toning  power,  into  the  higher  life 
and  mood  of  unity  with  the  teacher." 

The  schoolroom  should  be  a  place  of  harmony, 
peace,  and  beauty;  pleasing,  attractive,  and  homelike. 


190  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

It  should  have  clean  and  beautiful  floors  and  walls, 
with  some  harmony  between  the  two.  There  should 
be  some  decoration  in  the  form  of  some  well  chosen 
pictures,  not  many,  though,  some  casts,  and  some 
vases  and  flowers;  and  whatever  else  good  taste  sug- 
gests to  make  it  pleasant,  pure,  harmonious,  and 
admirable.  The  general  tone  of  such  a  schoolroom 
constantly  tends  to  induce  the  attitude  of  mind  favor- 
able to  the  unity  of  the  pupil  with  his  teacher. 

The  Purpose  of  the  Schoolroom. — The  purpose  of 
the  schoolroom  as  a  unifying  condition  may  be  ana- 
lyzed into  the  following  three  points: 

1.  To  bring  the  learner  into  the  presence  of  the 
teacher. 

2.  To  make  the  teacher  and  learner  comfortable. 

3.  To  minimize  diverting  influences. 

Presence  of  Learner. — In  the  schoolroom  the 
learner  is  brought  into  the  presence  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  necessary  for  the  pupil  and  teacher  to  work  in 
the  same  atmosphere.  No  first  rate  teaching  can  be 
done  except  in  the  presence  of  the  learner.  An  at- 
tempt is  sometimes  made  to  teach  by  correspondence, 
but  such  teaching  lacks  the  life,  flexibility,  and  force 
that  come  from  the  personal  contact  of  teacher  and 
learner.  In  the  presence  of  the  student  the  teacher 
can  adapt  his  teaching  to  the  moods,  attitudes  of 
mind,  and  peculiarities  of  each  individual.  Thus  only 
in  the  presence  of  the  student  can  the  teacher  best 
lead  him  to  think,  experience  the  feeling,  and  will  as 
he  should. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  191 

Also  in  teaching  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  pupils 
in  easy  communicable  relations.  The  minds  of 
pupils  can  not  keep  in  touch  with  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  in  the  teaching  act  unless  the  pupils  cam 
without  difficulty  see  and  hear  the  teacher.  If 
students  must  crane  their  necks  to  see  the  teacher's 
face  and  gestures,  and  strain  to  hear  his  words,  it  is 
safe  to  say  unity  will  not  last  long  under  such  con- 
ditions. Students  will  naturally  make  a  few  spas- 
modic efforts  under  such  circumstances  to  maintain, 
the  unity  between  themselves  and  the  teacher,  but 
the  tension  being  too  great,  they  will  soon  settle  down, 
the  unity  broken,  to  await  the  end  of  the  recitation. 

Communicable  relations  demand  that  the  school- 
room be  not  "too  long,  nor  too  broad.  Students  can. 
not  hear  the  teacher  well  more  than  thirty  feet,  and 
can  not  see  the  teacher  well  from  the  sides  if  the 
width  of  the  room  is  more  than  twenty-four  feet.  All 
school  authorities  are  agreed  on  these  dimensions  for 
a  schoolroom.  So  from  the  standpoint  of  school  gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  from  the  hygienic  standpoint,  no 
schoolroom  should  be  larger  than  twenty-four  by 
thirty-three  feet. 

Comfort  of  Teacher  and  Pupils. — Much  of  the  noise 
and  friction  in  school  arises  because  the  pupils  are 
uncomfortable.  No  student  should  be  expected  to 
work  quietly  who  is  uncomfortable  to  any  great  ex- 
tent. While  the  schoolhouse  is  to  provide  for  the 
comfort  of  pupils  and  teachers,  many  of  them  cer- 


192  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

tainly  fail  in  this  to  a  remarkable  degree.  When 
students  and  the  teacher  are  uncomfortable,  the  unity 
of  teacher  and  pupils  is  broken  in  that  their  attention 
is  drawn  to  their  bodily  discomfort.  Thus  no  student 
or  teacher  can  do  his  best  work  under  conditions  of 
bodily  discomfort. 

There  are  at  any  rate  four  things  connected  with 
the  schoolroom  which  will  contribute  to  bodily  com- 
fort: 1.  Comfortable  seats.  2.  Proper  temper- 
ature. 3.  Proper  ventilation.  4.  Proper  lighting. 

Not  only  from  hygienic  reasons,  but  from  reasons 
of  school  government  should  the  seats  be  of  proper 
pattern,  and  well  adapted  to  the  age  and  size  of  pupils 
who  use  them.  The  demand  for  seats  adapted  to  the 
individual  students  who  use  them  will  sooner  or  later 
bring  adjustable  seats  into  the  schoolroom.  The 
need  of  them  has  been  felt  in  the  past,  but  school 
officers  have  objected  to  them  on  the  grounds  that 
they  are  not  substantially  made  and  that  they  cost 
too  much.  Both  these  objections  will  in  time  be  over- 
come. 

Every  schoolroom  should  have  a  thermometer 
hung  about  four  feet  from  the  floor  in  some  part  of 
the  room  where  the  air  would  be  at  an  average  tem- 
perature with  that  in  the  room  as  a  whole,  and  the 
mercury  should  be  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  at  from 
68°  to  72°,  Fahrenheit.  If  the  temperature  is  below 
this,  some  one  will  be  uncomfortable  from  cold;  and 
if  the  temperature  is  above  this,  some  one  will  be  un- 
comfortable with  heat. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF   THE  SCHOOL.  193 

Plenty  of  pure  fresh  air  admitted  to  the  school- 
room in  such  a  way  that  no  one,  teacher  or  pupil,  will 
be  subjected  to  draughts  is  certainly  essential  to 
comfort,  and  since  essential  to  comfort,  it  becomes  a 
question  of  school  management  as  well  as  a  question 
of  school  hygiene.  One  point  here  needs  to  be  re- 
iterated and  emphasized,  and  that  is,  that  air  may  be 
unfit  to  breathe  and  at  the  same  time  be  cold.  That  the 
temperature  of  a  room  is  68°  or  below  is  absolutely  no 
guarantee  that  the  air  in  that  room  is  pure  enough  to 
breathe.  This  is  a  truth  that  many  janitors  never 
learn. 

Bad  lighting  likewise  induces  bodily  discomfort 
and  so  breaks  up  the  unity.  Plenty  of  light  for  all 
parts  of  the  room  should  be  admitted  to  the  school- 
room at  all  times,  and  the  main  sources  should  be 
from  the  pupil's  back  and  left.  In  order  that  there 
may  be  plenty  of  light  in  all  parts  of  the  room  the 
relation  between  floor  space  and  window  pane  space 
should  be  4  to  1;  that  is,  there  should  be  not  less  than 
one  square  foot  of  window  pane  to  every  four  square 
feet  of  floor  space.  This  relation  should  obtain  when 
there  are  no  obstructions  to  prevent  the  free  passage 
of  light.  If  buildings,  trees,  or  anything  of  the  kind 
obstruct  the  free  passage  of  the  light,  there  should 
be  more  than  one  square  foot  of  window  pane  to  four 
square  feet  of  floor  space. 

The  seating,  heating,  ventilating,  and  lighting  of 
schoolrooms  have  usually  been  studied  from  the 


194  STUDIES  IX   PEDAGOGY. 

hygienic  standpoint,  but  they  also  deserve  study 
from  the  viewpoint  of  school  management. 

Minimizing  Diverting  Influences. — Any  influence 
which  takes  the  pupil's  attention  away  from  his 
school  work  is  a  diverting  influence,  and  whatever 
removes  influences  that  take  the  pupil's  attention 
from  his  school  work  is  a  condition  of  unity.  The 
schoolroom  evidently  shuts  out  many  influences  which 
would  attract  the  pupil's  attention,  and  thus  divert 
him.  Some  schoolrooms  are  however  so  situated  that 
all  sorts  of  sights  and  sounds  are  continually  attract- 
ing the  attention  of  the  pupils.  The  writer  has  taught 
in  a  schoolroom  near  a  railroad  upon  which  as  many 
as  four  or  five  heavily  loaded  trains  would  pass  during 
one  recitation  period.  Just  so  many  times  was  the 
unity  of  the  recitation  broken.  Again,  a  schoolroom 
situated  near  a  paved  street  will  often  have  the  unity 
between  the  teacher  and  pupils  broken  by  the  rat- 
tling of  vehicles  upon  this  street.  These  points  are 
worth  consideration  in  choosing  a  location  for  school 
buildings. 

It  is  upon  the  school  premises  and  within  the 
schoolroom  in  particular  though  that  distracting  in- 
fluences may  be  minimized.  These  influences  are 
those  which  divert  through:  1.  Touch,  2.  Sight. 
3.  Hearing. 

Touch. — The  law  against  diverting  influences 
through  touch  demands  that  all  pencils,  knives,  un- 
necessary books,  fruit,  toys,  pencil  cases,  etc.,  except 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  195 

those  in  actual  use,  should  be  removed  from  desks. 
If  such  things  are  left  on  the  desk  they  are  a  constant 
challenge  to  the  student  to  touch  them,  and  as  such 
under  any  ordinary  circumstances  will  be  handled  by 
the  students. 

This  law  also  demands  single  seats,  and  estimates 
especially  their  superiority  over  double  seats. 

Sight. — It  is  imperative  that  all  unnecessary 
sights  be  removed  from  the  attention  of  the  students. 
Hence  the  law  against  students  passing  from  one  part 
of  the  room  to  another;  to  the  water  bucket;  to  and 
from  the  stove;  against  any  unusual  arrangement  of 
school  furniture. 

Hearing. — The  law  against  distracting  influences 
through  hearing  demands  quiet  in  the  schoolroom. 
This  is  such  an  important  point  in  school  management 
that  special  study  needs  to  be  given  to  it. 

From  a  mistaken  idea  that  to  demand  quiet  in  the 
schoolroom  is  to  rob  children  of  their  freedom,  some 
teachers  not  only  permit  but  advocate  an  intolerable 
amount  of  noise  in  their  schools.  The  error  of  this 
doctrine  should  be  made  as  clear  as  possible  to  every 
teacher  because  of  the  mischief  ensuing  from  it. 

Dr.  Arnold  Tompkins  exposes  well  its  pedagog- 
ical unsoundness  in  the  following:  " Most  effective 
of  all  means  of  diverting  the  attention  is  noise.  Si- 
lence must  be  the  law  of  the  schoolroom.  The  noise 
of  whispering,  studying,  fixing  fires,  walking,  loud 
talk  of  the  teacher,  etc.,  must  be  gotten  rid  of.  It  is 


196  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

quite  common  for  the  teacher  to  make  more  noise  than 
all  the  pupils  together.  A  teacher  should  speak  in 
subdued  tones,  and  move  about  too  quietly  to  attract 
notice.  He  should  so  address  a  class  during  recita- 
tion that  the  pupils  studying  are  not  compelled  to 
listen.  Pencils  should  be  sharpened  at  recess;  and 
slate  frames  covered,  or  slates  abolished  for  note- 
books. 

I  know  it  has  been  often  urged  that  a  noisy 
schoolroom  is  a  sign  of  energy  and  activity,  of  in- 
dustry and  hard  work;  that  the  working  beehive  must 
hum.  This  sounds  very  well  till  we  reflect  that  it  is 
physical  energy  and  activity  that  makes  the  noise; 
there  is  no  mental  analogy.  Rather  it  is  the  reverse; 
the  greater  the  mental  activity  the  greater  the  silence. 
The  boy  who  thinks  is  not  necessarily  noisy,  but 
necessarily  silent.  All  professional  students  seek  a 
silent  retreat  as  the  best  condition  for  mental  labor. 
This  doctrine  of  a  noisy  school  arises  from  two  classes 
of  teachers, — those  who  can  not  secure  silence  and 
seek  an  escape  through  the  theory;  and  those  who 
champion  in  good  faith  the  plea  for  freedom  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil, — or  as  it  seems  to  some,  a  plea  for 
license." 

Since  the  child  has  such  a  superabundance  of 
energy  which  seeks  to  discharge  itself  in  muscular 
activity,  it  is  almost  an  impossibility  for  him  to  keep 
quiet  long  at  a  time.  This  truth  together  with  the 
law  of  silence  for  the  schoolroom  demands  short 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  197 

school  hours  with  frequent  intermissions  and  rest 
periods  in  which  an  opportunity  is  given  for  muscular 
activity.  Marches,  drills,  and  other  forms  of  physical 
exercise  are  a  powerful  means  in  maintaining  silence 
in  the  schoolroom  if  interspersed  between  the  periods 
of  mental  work. 

Conditions  of  Unity  between  the  Learner's  Heal  and 
Ideal  Self. — It  may  be  reiterated  that  there  is  unity 
between  the  pupil's  real  and  ideal  self  when  each  act 
he  puts  forth  helps  to  fix  in  him  habits  of  wisdom  and 
virtue.  If  each  act  would  do  so,  this  would  be  ideal 
growth  in  self-realization. 

The  highest  aim  of  the  school  is  to  induce  actions 
by  the  pupil  that  will  constantly  uplift  him,  and  give 
him  the  ability  to  inhibit  those  which  would  degrade 
him,  that  the  growth  brought  about  by  these  activities 
may  crystallize  into  character  whose  elements  are 
wisdom  and  virtue.  But  this  would  be  nothing  more 
than  unity  between  the  learner's  real  and  ideal  self. 

The  conditions  of  this  unity  are  at  any  rate  four: 
1.  Pure  motives.  2.  Eight  ideas  of  life.  3.  Incen- 
tives. 4.  Social  influences. 

Pure  Motives. — Pure  motives  mean  one's  intentions 
to  do  good  in  his  actions. 

The  one  who  habitually  intends  to  do  good  in  his 
actions  is  much  more  likely  to  do  the  things  which 
will  constantly  further  him  toward  wisdom  and  virtue, 
than  the  one  who  frequently  does  things  with  bad 
intent.  Of  course  one  may  make  mistakes,  but  on 


198  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  whole  pure  motives  prove  a  very  potent  condition 
in  maintaining  the  unity  between  the  learner's  real 
and  ideal  self. 

That  the  teacher  may  lead  the  student  to  look  into 
his  own  mind  and  make  inquiries  about  his  motives  is 
a  thought  worthy  of  attention,  too.  In  this  way  the 
teacher  may  help  the  pupils  in  establishing  this  very 
important  condition  of  unity. 

Eight,  Ideas  of  Life.— One's  ideas  of  anything  al- 
ways determine  very  largely  what  his  actions  are 
toward  that  thing.  Therefore,  the  pupil  must  have 
right  ideas  of  life,  otherwise  he  can  not  attain  to  right 
living.  If  the  pupil  can  be  made  to  see  and  feel  fer- 
vently that,  when  all  things  are  considered,  there  is 
but  one  thing  in  general  in  life  worth  living  for, 
namely,  a  high  type  of  wise  and  virtuous  manhood  or 
womanhood,  one  very  essential  condition  of  unity  be- 
tween his  real  and  ideal  self  exists. 

What  an  opportunity  here  for  the  teacher  who  is 
himself  what  his  students  should  become,  to  help 
students  to  start  right  in  life.  The  teacher  must  have 
thought  out  what  life's  success  consists  in,  it  is  true, 
before  he  can  inspire  students  to  hunger  and  thirst 
after  righteousness. 

Right  ideas  of  life  and  conduct  are  certainly  a 
very  important  condition  of  unity  between  the  learn- 
er's real  and  ideal  self. 

Incentives. — Incentives  are  stimuli  to  urge  to  ac- 
tivity. Strictly  speaking  an  incentive  is  always  a 


THE   MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  199 

desire  for  something,  but  the  thing  which  arouses  the 
desire  is  also  frequently  called  the  incentive.  As 
such,  are  class  grades,  class  honors,  per  cents, 
prizes,  etc. 

Incentives  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  1. 
Natural.  2.  Artificial. 

Natural  Incentives. — Natural  incentives  are  de- 
sires for  those  effects  which  in  the  nature  of  things 
result  from  the  deed;  as  the  knowledge  and  mental 
growth  which  result  from  conscientious  study. 

Tlie  one  great  natural  incentive  is  the  mind's  inherent 
desire  for  progress.  The  soul  awakes  to  consciousness 
with  the  desire  for  progress  as  its  deepest  and 
strongest  trait.  This  passion  of  the  soul  for  knowl- 
edge and  righteousness,  this  desire  for  progress  is 
man's  distinctive  mark. 

"Progress,  man's  distinctive  mark  alone, 

Not  God's,  and  not  the  beasts';  God  is,  they  are, 

Man  partly  is,  and  wholly  hopes  to  be." 

This  characteristic  of  the  mind,  mental  hunger,  is 
called  wonder  in  psychology.  Thus  wonder  is  the 
mind's  natural  incentive.  It  has  produced  science 
and  philosophy. 

All  natural  incentives  are  good  for  they  stimulate 
the  learner  to  natural,  healthy  endeavor. 

Artificial  Incentives. — Artificial  incentives,  as  the 
name  implies,  are  incentives  which  do  not  naturally 
result  from  the  deed.  For  instance,  a  parent  might 
pay  his  child  for  learning  his  spelling  lesson.  The 


200  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

child  would  thus  be  stimulated  to  learn  spelling  lessons, 
from  his  desire  for  money.  The  incentive  is  un- 
natural, for  a  quantity  of  money  is  not  a  natural 
result  of  the  action.  Thus,  examinations,  per  cents, 
class  honors,  prizes,  etc.,  come  under  the  head  of 
artificial  incentives. 

Artificial  incentives  are  at  the  best  of  doubtful 
utility.  While  they  may  do  some  good,  the  evils  re- 
sulting from  them  probably  outweigh  by  far  this  good. 
The  best  educators  in  the  land  condemn  them 
strongly. 

"The  use  of  such  means  necessarily  kills  the 
desire  to  know,  which  is  immoral  because  killing 
the  soul  itself.  When  a  teacher,  in  good  faith  that 
the  natural  process  of  learning  is  its  own  sufficient 
reward,  begins  to  instruct  pupils  who  have  been 
under  the  artificial  stimulus  of  the  per  cent,  system, 
he  finds  them  to  be  indifferent  to  legitimate  appeals, 
and  ready  to  affirm  that  school  life  is  not  worth  living 
without  the  usual  excitement  and  strife  for  per  cent. 
What  hope  for  such  pupils  after  the  days  of  formal 
instruction !  The  severest  criticism  that  can  be  made 
on  school  work  is  to  show  that  students  after  gradu- 
ation have  not  a  burning  desire  to  pursue  a  systematic 
course  of  study  and  improvement.  The  use  of  false 
incentives  is  not  the  only  reason  for  this;  but  it  is 
largely  chargeable  to  formal  methods  of  instruction 
which  necessitates  artificial  incentives,  which  further 
render  instruction  dead  and  formal.  By  this  process 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  201 

the  pupil,  if  not  becoming  positively  averse  to  study,, 
feels  satisfied  and  self-sufficient,  and  having  no  foreign 
incentive  now  offered,  he  is  under  no  compulsion  to> 
further  labor.  If  study  means  a  contest  with  ponder- 
able per  centable  packages  of  knowledge,  how  play 
the  game  when  there  is  no  one  to  estimate  and  umpire?" 
If  the  school  is  to  determine  to  a  future  life  of  study v 
the  motives  appealed  to  and  cultivated  in  school  must 
be  the  same  as  those  employed  in  the  natural,  health- 
ful  course  of  life  out  of  school.'1 

"The  abiding  passion  of  the  soul  is  for  knowl- 
edge, and  all  the  teacher  can  properly  do  is  to  take 
this  fact  fairly  and  at  its  worth.  The  passion  he  may 
stimulate,  make  definite,  and  attach  to  the  proper- 
objects;  but  he  can  not  introduce  a  substitute  without 
weakening  the  life-giving  connection  between  the? 
pupil  learning  and  the  object  being  learned." 

Social  Influences. — The  child  is  by  nature  a  social 
being,  and  will  live  in  society  after  leaving  school.  In. 
the  school  in  many  instances  he  first  begins  to  learn 
his  duties  with  respect  to  others.  In  all  cases  the 
pupil  first  begins  to  come  fully  into  the  understand- 
ing of  what  it  means  to  live  in  a  society  of  his  equals. 
In  the  family  the  student  begins  to  learn  something 
of  living  in  society,  but  it  is  in  the  school  that  he  first 
meets  with  the  conditions  of  society  in  anything  like 
those  hi  which  he  will  be  required  to  live  later.  The 
school  forms  a  transition  from  the  family  to  the  com- 
plex social  life  of  the  community.  Here  the  pupil 


202  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

learns  something  of  the  difference  between  doing  as 
he  pleases  and  doing  so  as  to  uplift  himself  and  at  the 
same  time  help  those  around  him.  In  the  school  are 
good  opportunities  for  learning  habits  of  politeness, 
toleration,  charity,  order,  truthfulness,  justice,  and 
industry.  But  all  of  this  is  unity  between  the  learn- 
er's real  and  ideal  self.  Thus  social  influence  is  one 
of  the  conditions  of  unity  between  the  real  and  ideal 
self. 

Broken  Unity. — In  the  best  regulated  schools  there 
will  be  cases  of  broken  unity.  This  may  happen  hi 
any  of  the  following  ways:  1.  Through  ignorance. 
2.  Through  neglect.  3.  Through  thoughtlessness. 
4.  Through  willfulness.  If  the  child  does  not  know 
that  it  is  a  violation  of  unity  to  come  to  school  late, 
and  comes  in  late,  it  is  a  case  of  broken  unity  through 
ignorance.  If,  however,  he  knows  it  is  wrong,  but 
neglects  to  start  in  time,  it  is  a  case  of  broken  unity 
by  neglect.  If  the  learner  thoughtlessly  plays  with 
the  ink  well  on  his  desk,  and  thus  breaks  the  unity  by 
the  noise  made,  it  is  a  case  of  broken  unity  through 
thoughtlessness.  If  a  student  purposely  insults  one 
of  his  fellow  students  or  the  teacher,  he  willfully 
breaks  the  unity  of  the  school. 

Since  prevention  is  better  than  cure,  the  main 
aim  in  school  government  is  in  preventing  broken 
unity.  This  is  to  be  done  by  establishing  conditions 
for  unity  and  eliminating  those  unfavorable  to  unity. 
This  consists  first  and  at  all  times  in  establishing  a 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  203 

sentiment  in  the  lives  of  students  in  favor  of  those 
things  conducive  to  unity  and  against  those  things 
unfavorable  to  unity. 

Restoration  of  Unity. — When  unity  in  any  way  in 
school  is  broken  it  must  be  restored.  The  ideal  con- 
dition would  be  to  have  the  school  in  such  an  attitude,  that 
the  unity  would  be  voluntarily  restored  by  the  one  who 
broke  it.  And  if  students  have  in  mind  ( 1 )  the  nature 
of  the  school;  (2)  the  source  and  nature  of  the  law  of 
the  school;  and  (3)  have  the  proper  sentiment  toward 
school  behavior,  the  unity  in  most  cases,  when  broken, 
will  be  spontaneously  and  voluntarily  restored.  But 
since  such  conditions  can  not  always  be  maintained, 
it  must  at  times  be  restored  through  the  influence  of 
the  teacher  as  an  agent. 

The  teacher's  work  in  restoring  unity  becomes  a 
not  difficult  task  when  the  conditions  insisted  on  all 
along  in  these  studies  have  been  established  in  school. 
Confidential  talks  with  students  in  which  the  teacher 
in  a  kind  and  sympathetic  manner  calls  attention  to 
the  offense  and  the  way  to  correct  it  may  be  used 
with  lasting  and  beneficent  results.  Often  nothing 
is  necessary  but  to  call  the  student's  attention  to  the 
misbehavior.  However,  obstinate  cases  arise  which 
can  not  be  passed  by  lightly,  and  this  suggests  the 
question  of  school  punishments. 

School  Punishments. — This  is  the  most  delicate  as 
well  as  the  most  disagreeable  feature  of  the  teacher's 
ivork.  It  requires  a  great  deal  of  discretion,  patience, 


204  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

sympathy,  and  good  sense  to  punish  at  all  success- 
fully. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  punishment  in 
school  has  the  following  two  purposes: 

1.  To  restore  broken  unity. 

2.  To  prevent  broken  unity  in  the  future. 

And  punishment  which  fails  in  either  or  both  of  these 
things  is  not  an  entire  success,  but  it  may  easily  be 
an  entire  failure.  If  by  punishment  the  teacher,  by 
arousing  anger,  antagonism,  and  bad  feeling,  causes 
more  unity  to  be  broken  than  restored,  the  school 
would  have  fared  better  without  the  administering  of 
punishment. 

The  teacher  must  not  punish  for  revenge,  or  with 
a  vindictive  spirit.  Punishment  must  be  reformative 
and  preventative,  not  vindictive.  Plato  was  right 
when  he  said  only  the  unreasonable  fury  of  a  brute 
would  punish  vindictively.  If  the  teacher  finds  him- 
self angry,  and  it  is  admitted  that  occasions  for 
justifiable  anger  arise  in  school,  he  will  gain  an  im- 
portant victory  by  not  acting  till  his  anger  subsides. 
He  will  often  save  a  good  many  heartaches  and 
regrets,  too. 

No  recipes  can  be  given  for  particular  cases,  but 
the  study  of  nature's  punishments  enables  us  to  state 
the  following  general  rule,  which  is  always  safe  to 
follow:  The  punishment  should  be  what  in  the  nature  of 
things  follows  as  a  result  of  the  offense. 


THE   MANAGEMENT   OF  THE  SCHOOL.  205 

The  only  difficulty  with  the  guidance  which  this 
rule  furnishes  in  school  punishments  is  that  of  de- 
termining what  the  natural  result  of  the  offense  is. 
At  times  it  is  very  difficult  to  determine  what 
naturally  follows  as  a  result  of  the  offense.  But  in  a 
large  number  of  cases  this  rule  gives  absolutely  safe 
guidance. 

Illustration. — If  a  student  spills  water  on  the 
floor  of  the  schoolroom  through  carelessness,  the 
natural  thing  is  to  have  him  clean  it  up.  If  again  a 
student  by  making  noise  disturbs  a  certain  part  of 
the  room,  the  natural  punishment  is  removal  from 
that  part  of  the  room. 

Corporal  Punishment. — Corporal  punishment  is 
punishment  of  the  body,  as  by  whipping,  beating,  etc. 

The  tendency  in  school  government  is  to  discard 
it  entirely.  Some  cities  do  not  tolerate  it  at  all  in 
their  schools.  It  is,  to  say  the  best  for  it,  the  device 
of  the  teacher  who  is  not  sufficiently  wise  to  see  a 
better  way.  That  a  better  way  exists  is  not  doubted 
by  those  who  have  carefully  studied  the  problem.  It 
is  a  noticable  fact  that  the  most  skillful  teachers 
everywhere  have  the  least  use  for  corporal  punish- 
ment, while  the  least  skillful  resort  to  it  most. 

If  our  teachers  were  all  wise  enough,  and  if 
school  conditions  were  what  they  should  be,  no  doubt 
Corporal  punishment  could  be  abolished  in  school 
entirely;  but  with  existing  conditions  it  does  seem 
that  it  is  not  entirely  wise  to  wholly  condemn  and 


206  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

forbid  its  use.  However  it  should  be  remembered 
that  it  is  the  device  of  the  unskillful,  and  the  ignorant, 
and  is  to  be  used  only  when  all  other  means  have  been 
exhausted. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  PROCESS  IN   THE  TEACHING  ACT,— METHOD. 

The  Teaching  Act. — The  school  exists  as  an  organ- 
ization  in  order  that  the  most  favorable  conditions, 
may  be  furnished  for  the  act  of  teaching.  It  is  in 
this  act  that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  comes  into  vital 
touch  with  the  mind  of  the  teacher.  Here  the  miracle 
of  the  influence  of  one  mind  upon  another  is  mani- 
fested. Here  it  is  that  the  most  important  duty  of  the 
teacher  is  involved.  To  this  process  all  other  processes 
of  the  school  point.  The  school  finds  the  idea  that 
created  it  in  the  process  of  realization  in  the  teaching 
act.  The  act  of  teaching  is  a  process  for  it  is  a  series 
of  steps  directed  toward  the  accomplishment  of  an 
end.  The  teaching  act  is  not  a  simple  process  for  it 
is  a  large  process  made  up  of  smaller  processes. 

The  Processes  in  It. — A  brief  analysis  of  the  teach- 
ing act  will  show  that  there  are  three  processes  going 
on  in  it, —  (1)  the  thinking  the  learner  is  doing;  (2) 
the  thinking  the  teacher  is  doing;  (3)  a  process  of 
handling  questions,  directions,  objects,  assignments, 
and  so  on — the  manipulation  of  means  in  teaching. 
The  first  two  of  these  processes  are  spiritual,  or 
mental,  processes,  and  the  third  is  external  to  both 


:208  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

the  mind  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  and  is  a  physical 
process. 

Illustration. — In  teaching  the  definition  of  a  noun 
to  a  student,  first,  the  student's  mind  goes  through 
the  process  of  thinking  (1)  that  the  noun  is  a  sub- 
stantive word;  and  (2)  that  it  expresses  an  object  by 
naming  it.  This  is  the  process  in  the  mind  of  the 
student  in  the  teaching  act.  Secondly,  the  teacher 
thinks  these  same  points  through  with  the  student, 
but  he  thinks  several  other  things,  too.  This  is  the 
spiritual  process  of  the  teacher  in  the  teaching  act. 
Thirdly,  there  is  a  process  of  asking  questions,  illus- 
trating, possibly  referring  to  text-books,  etc.,  going 
on,  and  this  is  the  physical  process  in  the  teaching 
act. 

Nature  of  Method  as  a  Subject  of  Study. — The  ques- 
tion, What  is  the  subject  of  method  like?  is  often 
asked.  It  may  be  answered  in  a  general  way  by  say- 
ing it  is  a  subject  of  study  the  pursuit  of  which  has 
for  its  special  object  to  make  teachers  more  skillful 
in  teaching  than  they  would  be  without  such  study. 
But  this  much  might  be  said  of  any  pedagogical 
study — of  psychology,  for  instance.  To  be  more 
definite,  method  as  a  subject  is  that  study  which 
deals  with  the  three  processes  in  the  act  of  teaching 
as  indicated  above.  These  three  processes  in  their 
various  phases  constitute  the  material  of  all  study  in 
the  subject  of  method. 

The  Subject-matter  of  Method. — By  subject-matter 
is  meant  the  material  of  study  in  any  subject  or  lesson. 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  209 

It  is  the  thought  and  feeling  embodied  in  any  subject 
or  lesson  which  are  to  be  got  from  such  subject  or 
lesson  by  study.  It  always  consists  of  facts  and 
relations  among  such  facts.  So  the  subject-matter  of 
method,  as  a  subject  of  study,  is  the  three  processes,  one 
in  the  mind  of  the  learner,  one  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher, 
and  one  a  physical  process,  in  their  relation  to  the  growth 
in  the  life  of  the  learner. 

Definition  of  Method. — Method  is  thus  seen  to  be  a 
complex  and  comprehensive  thing.  Any  definition  to 
be  perfectly  accurate,  must  include  the  various  phases 
of  these  three  processes.  The  following,  it  seems, 
does  this:  Method  is  the  triple  process  in  the  act  of 
teaching  by  which  the  learner  is  induced  to  take  the  steps 
from  his  real  condition  to  a  higher  condition  held  up  as 
an  ideal.  This  is  the  definition  of  method  considered 
in  its  broadest  and  most  comprehensive  sense,  and 
the  sense  in  which  its  study  will  give  the  most  help 
to  the  teacher. 

Classes  of  Method. — Since  there  are  three  proc- 
esses going  on  in  the  teaching  act  there  are,  in  a 
sense,  three  methods, — the  learner's  method,  the 
teacher's  method,  and  physical  method.  These  three 
will  be  studied  somewhat  in  detail. 

The  Learner's  Method. — The  learner's  method  is 
the  movement  of  his  mind  in  gaining  any  point  of 
knowledge.  The  pupil's  method  is  thus  a  living, 
spiritual  process  internal  to  his  life.  Method  from 
this  point  of  view  is  mental  growth.  That  is  to  say, 


210  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

it  is  the  change  of  potential  mental  activity  into  actual 
mental  activity,  and  this  is  the  essence  of  growth. 

Illustration. — If  the  child  learns  in  a  number 
lesson  that  8  -+-  7  =  15,  the  activity  of  his  mind  in 
thinking  the  following  steps  is  his  method:  (1)  the 
mind  rethinks  the  number  8;  (2)  the  mind  rethinks 
the  number  7;  (3)  the  mind  thinks  the  number  8  and 
7  together;  (4)  the  mind  thinks  the  name  of  the  new 
number.  These  four  steps  are  the  mind's  process  in 
thinking  the  point  of  knowledge,  and  are,  therefore, 
the  mind's  method.  This  phase  of  method  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  thing  to  be  watched  and 
emphasized  in  teaching  is  the  change  in  the  learner's 
life  by  which  he  is  constantly  rising  to  a  higher  plane 
of  living. 

Definition  of  the  Learner's  Method. — The  learner's 
method  may  be  characterized  by  the  following  defi- 
nitions: 

1.  The  learner's  method  is  the  process  of  the 
learner's  mind  in  learning  a  thing. 

2.  The  learner's  method  is  the  movement  by 
which  his  mind  identifies  itself  with  the  thought  and 
feeling  of  the  external  world. 

3.  The  learner's  method  is  the  mental  activity 
by  which  his  mind  makes  the  objective  the  subjective. 
The  objective  means   the   external  world,  and  the 
subjective  means  the  self.    And  the  self  means  one's 
original  capacity  to  know,  to  feel,  and  to  will,  plus  the 
effect  of  one's  experiences  on  this  capacity. 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  211 

4.  The  learner's  method  is  the  process  in  which 
his  mind  goes  from  its  real  condition  to  an  ideal  con- 
dition. One's  real  condition  is  his  condition  just  as 
he  is  at  any  time.  His  ideal  condition  is  one  different 
from  what  he  is  in  at  any  time,  and  which  actually 
has  no  existence  except  as  an  idea  in  the  mind;  hence 
the  name  ideal.  The  ideal  condition  is  not  necessarily 
a  better  condition  than  the  real,  but  may  be  either  a 
better  or  worse  condition. 

The  Teacher's  Method. — The  teacher's  method  is 
the  thinking  he  does  in  teaching  a  thing.  The  teacher 's 
method  is  a  very  important  topic  of  study  in  the  sub- 
ject of  method.  It  must  be  thoroughly  understood 
by  one  who  is  to  succeed  best. 

First,  the  teacher  must  think  the  thought  in  the 
point  or  points  to  be  taught;  that  is,  he  must  think 
the  subject-matter.  Secondly,  he  must  see  in  terms 
of  development  of  the  learner's  life  the  reasons  for 
teaching  the  subject-matter;  that  is,  he  must  see  the 
purpose.  Thirdly,  the  teacher  must  see  the  nearest 
related  knowledge  possessed  by  the  learner  which  he 
can  use  as  a  foundation  to  build  upon  in  teaching  the 
new  point;  that  is,  he  must  see  the  basis.  Fourthly, 
the  teacher  must  see  the  activities  the  learner's  mind 
puts  forth  in  mastering  the  points  of  truth  in  the 
subject-matter;  that  is,  he  must  see  the  steps.  Lastly, 
the  teacher  must  see  the  means  he  may  best  employ 
in  leading  the  mind  of  the  learner  to  take  the  steps  in 
mastering  the  subject-matter;  that  is,  the  teacher 


212  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

must  think  out  the  devices.  Thus  the  teacher  in 
teaching  a  lesson  must  think  (1)  the  subject-matter; 
(2)  the  purpose;  (3)  the  basis;  (4)  the  steps;  and  (5) 
the  devices.  These  five  things  every  teacher  does  in 
some  sort  of  way  in  teaching  every  lesson.  Some 
think  them  out  clearly  and  accurately,  and  some  think 
them  out  scarcely  at  all,  and  do  not  know  that  they 
do  even  that  much.  A  teacher  can  think  the  teaching 
of  a  single  point,  or  of  a  whole  lesson,  or  of  a  whole 
subject,  under  these  five  heads,  and  must  do  so  with 
more  or  less  accuracy  in  teaching.  It  is  worth  our 
while  to  study  these  five  points  further  for  the  help 
the  study  will  give. 

Subject-matter.— In  a  general  way  the  subject- 
matter  is  that  which  is  to  be  mastered  by  study.  It 
is  the  thought  embodied  in  the  thing  studied  by  the 
mind  of  the  learner.  In  a  particular  lesson  the  sub- 
ject-matter is  just  that  to  be  got  from  the  lesson 
which  the  learner  should  have  after  the  recitation. 
In  a  particular  subject,  as  grammar  or  history,  the 
subject-matter  is  just  that  to  be  got  from  the  subject 
which  the  learner  should  be  in  possession  of  after  the 
study  of  the  subject.  In  this  general  sense  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  education  is  the  whole  world  of  thought. 
This  study  is  too  general  to  be  most  helpful.  A 
closer  study  will  reveal  the  fact  that  every  subject- 
matter  is  composed  of  two  things:  (1)  The  facts  to 
be  taught.  (2)  The  relation  in  which  these  facts  are 
to  be  taught  or  studied. 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT,— METHOD.  213 

Illustration. — Suppose  the  words,  inquiry,  dis- 
course, and  aspirant  are  to  be  taught.  Now,  a  spelling 
lesson  might  be  made  of  it;  and  if  it  were  a  spelling 
lesson,  the  subject-matter  would  be,  the  words,  in- 
quiry, discourse,  and  aspirant,  as  to  their  correct 
written  or  printed  forms.  Thus  the  words,  inquiry, 
discourse,  and  aspirant  are  the  facts  to  be  taught  or 
studied,  and  "as  to  their  correct  'written  or  printed 
form  "  indicates  the  relation  in  which  they  are  to  be 
taught  or  studied.  But  these  same  facts  might  be 
used,  and  the  lesson  not  be  a  spelling  lesson  at  all. 
If  the  relation  in  which  they  are  to  be  studied  or 
taught  is  as  to  their  correct  pronunciation  the  lesson 
would  be  one  in  orthoepy,  and  the  subject-matter 
would  be,  the  words,  inquiry,  discourse,  and  aspirant 
as  to  their  correct  pronunciation. 

Further  Illustration. — Suppose  the  facts  of  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  are  taught, 
who  can  say  whether  the  lesson  is  one  in  astronomy 
or  one  in  geography?  If,  however,  these  are  taught 
in  their  relation  to  the  distribution  of  life,  climate 
and  relief  forms  on  the  earth's  surface,  the  lesson  at 
once  reveals  itself  as  a  geography  lesson.  From  these 
illustrations  it  is  to  be  seen  that  a  subject-matter 
consists  of  (1)  the  facts  to  be  taught  or  studied;  and 
(2)  the  relation  in  which  these  facts  are  to  be  con- 
sidered. This  relation  is  often  called  the  organizing 
principle  of  the  subject-matter. 

General  Statement  of  Subject-matter. — The  state- 
ment of  subject-matter  is  not  the  subject-matter  any 


214  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

more  than  a  word  is  an  idea,  or  a  sentence  a  thought. 
The  statement  of  the  subject-matter  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  subject-matter  that  the  word  bears  to 
the  idea  and  that  the  sentence  bears  to  the  thought; 
that  is,  the  statement  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
subject-matter  that  the  symbol  does  to  the  thing 
symbolized. 

The  general  statement  of  a  subject-matter  is  very 
valuable  to  a  teacher,  whether  it  be  of  a  single  lesson, 
or  of  a  whole  subject.  It  is  helpful  to  the  teacher 
because  it  must  do  two  things:  (1)  it  must  name  the 
facts  to  be  taught,  and  (2)  it  must  tell  the  relation  in 
which  these  facts  are  to  be  taught.  Thus  the  general 
statement  of  the  subject-matter  of  any  subject  is  a 
perennial  guide  to  the  teacher  in  teaching  that  sub- 
ject, in  that  it  shows,  in  a  general  way,  what  to  teach 
and  in  what  relation  (how)  to  teach  it. 

Purpose. — Purpose  in  reality  is  beginning  and 
end  in  every  process.  The  purpose  as  idea — the  be- 
ginning— moves  forward  in  the  process  to  its  reali- 
zation— the  end.  The  purpose  exists  in  the  teacher's 
mind,  but  it  is  to  be  realized  in  the  life  of  the  learner. 
The  purpose  is  the  effect  the  mastery  of  the  subject- 
matter  should  have  on  the  life  of  the  child.  In  actual 
teaching  the  teacher  is  to  go  from  the  subject-matter 
by  way  of  comparison  of  the  effect  the  thinking  the 
subject-matter  has  on  his  own  mind  to  its  effect  on 
the  child's  life,  which  is  the  purpose.  That  is  to  say, 
there  is  no  way  to  tell  the  purpose  of  the  subject- 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  215 

matter  except  from  the  effect  its  mastery  produces 
on  the  child's  life.  The  course  of  study — the  subject- 
matter — is  usually  provided  for  the  teacher.  So  the 
teacher  must  start  with  the  subject-matter  and  find 
out  the  purpose  in  teaching  it.  Much  depends  in  the 
teaching  act  upon  how  well  the  teacher  does  this.  If 
the  teacher  has  definitely  in  mind  just  what  he  wants 
to  do  in  the  lesson  he  will  be  drawn  steadily  and 
constantly  toward  its  accomplishment.  A  definite 
purpose  saves  time,  economizes  energy,  emphasizes 
the  important,  organizes,  and  prevents  aimless  wan- 
dering. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  teaching  any  lesson  there 
are  two  phases  of  the  purpose:  (1)  to  give  knowledge 
valuable  for  guidance  in  living;  (2)  to  give  mental 
discipline;  that  is,  to  furnish  a  mental  gymnastic  to 
the  end  that  the  mind  may  grow  strong  by  exercising- 
it. 

Basis. — This  is  the  learner's  nearest  related 
knowledge  to  the  new  points  to  be  taught,  and  upon 
which  the  teacher  may  build  in  teaching  the  new 
point.  Basis  is  an  important  point  in  teaching.  Many 
errors  are  made  in  teaching  because  the  learner  has 
not  basis  for  learning  the  new  point,  or  because  the 
teacher  does  not  see  the  basis.  Teaching  in  harmony 
with  the  principle  underlying  basis,  the  mind  naturally 
goes  to  the  unknown  from  the  nearest  related  Jcnown, 
means  a  progressive  development  of  a  subject,  each 
step  becoming  basis  for  the  step  succeeding  it.  There 


216  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

are  many  violations  of  basis  in  teaching,  as  often 
done. 

Illustration. — If  the  lesson  to  be  taught  is  that 
5  +  4  =  9,  the  child  must  know  the  number  5  and 
the  number  4  as  basis  before  he  could  learn  that  5  + 
4  =  9.  If  the  teacher  should  attempt  to  teach  this 
lesson  without  having  taught  the  numbers  5  and  4  he 
would  meet  with  the  difficulty  of  insufficient  basis. 
Again,  if  a  teacher  attempts  to  teach  the  noun  to  a 
class  without  the  class  having  a  definite  knowledge  of 
an  object,  he  will  most  surely  meet  a  difficulty  in  the 
basis.  The  teacher  to  teach  well  must  see  and  choose 
definitely  his  basis. 

Steps. — Steps  are  more  or  less  complete  move- 
ments of  the  mind.  They  are  mental  things  and  in 
the  teaching  act  are  in  the  life  of  the  learner.  They 
are  the  advances  of  the  mind  in  mastering  the  sep- 
arate points  of  the  lesson  to  be  learned.  Or  in  a 
more  general  sense  they  are  the  advances  of  the  mind 
in  mastering  the  various  phases  of  a  subject. 

1 Illustration. — If  the  lesson  to  be  taught  were  that 
17  —  8  =  9,  the  steps  would  be:  1.  The  advance  of 
the  mind  in  rethinking  the  number  17.  2.  The  ad- 
vance of  the  mind  in  rethinking  the  number  8.  3. 
The  advance  of  the  mind  in  thinking  the  number  9  as 
remainder.  Again,  if  the  lesson  were,  to  teach  the 
definition  of  the  triangle,  after  examining  several 
triangles,  the  steps  would  be:  1.  The  advance  of 
the  mind  in  thinking  a  triangle  is  a  figure.  2.  The 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  217 

advance  of  the  mind  in  thinking  a  triangle  has  three 
sides.  3.  The  advance  of  the  mind  in  thinking  a 
triangle  has  three  angles.  4.  The  advance  of  the 
mind  in  synthesizing  these  points  in  the  definition,  A 
triangle  is  a  figure  having  three  sides  and  three  angles. 

To  know  the  steps  the  mind  takes  in  working  out 
any  new  lesson  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  the 
teacher.  He  must  know  something  of  the  steps  or 
he  cannot  teach  at  all;  and,  other  things  equal,  the 
more  clearly  the  teacher  has  thought  out  the  steps, 
the  better  will  he  teach  the  lesson. 

Devices. — The  devices  are  the  various  things  used 
by  the  teacher  to  lead  the  mind  of  the  learner  to  think 
and  feel  in  the  manner  desired.  A  synonym  for 
devices  is  the  term  means.  Devices,  or  means,  con- 
stitute a  very  important  factor  in  teaching.  There  is 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  rare  judgment,  tact, 
and  skill  in  the  selection  of  devices.  When  it  is 
understood  that  questions,  text-books,  and  reference 
books,  maps,  globes,  and  school  apparatus  in  general; 
blocks,  sticks,  etc.,  are  devices  in  teaching,  some- 
thing of  their  importance  in  school  work  becomes 
evident.  Devices  are  so  important  that  among  many, 
method  means  nothing  more  than  the  manipulation  of 
devices.  However  important  they  are  it  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of  that  they  are  always  determined  in  the 
light  of  the  mental  process  they  are  to  induce.  They 
are  means  to  an  end,  and  in  nature  the  end  is  always, 
more  important  than  the  means. 


218  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

MetJtodas  a  Physical  Process. — It  is,  perhaps,  using 
the  term  method  in  its  most  popular  significance  to 
think  of  it  as  meaning  some  physical  process  external 
to  the  life  of  the  learner.  That  is  to  say,  it  is  using 
the  term  in  the  sense  in  which  most  persons  com- 
monly use  it  in  speaking  and  writing.  This  idea  of 
method  is  the  one  usually  held  by  persons  who  have 
not  made  any  careful  study  of  what  the  term  really 
ought  to  mean.  There  is  a  sort  of  indefiniteness  in 
the  minds  of  such  persons  as  to  just  what  they  do 
mean  by  method.  However,  upon  examination  it  will 
be  found  usually  that  the  idea  that  method  is  the 
manner  of  doing  some  physical  thing  prevails,  though 
even  this  is  held  in  mind  more  or  less  vaguely.  Prom 
thinking  of  method  in  this  sense  we  have  the  following 
terms;  "Object  Method, "  "Concert  Method, "  "Con- 
secutive Method,"  "Promiscuous  Method,"  "Lecture 
Method,'1  "Socratic  Method,"  and  "Laboratory 
Method." 

These  all  refer  to  the  manipulation  of  objects, 
questions,  and  answers  in  the  teaching  act,  and  so 
are  to  be  studied  briefly  under  method  as  a  physical 
process. 

The  Object  Method.— By  this  is  meant  the  handling 
of  objects  by  teacher  and  pupils  in  the  process  of 
teaching.  It  is  a  good  line  of  work,  if  used  judicious- 
ly. It  has  its  proper  place  in  teaching  number  work^ 
primary  reading,  nature  study,  primary  geography, 
and  primary  language. 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  219 

The  Concert  Method. — The  concert  method  means 
having  students  to  answer  questions,  read,  and  speak 
simultaneously  in  the  recitation.  There  is  much  that 
may  be  said  against  concert  work,  but  very  little  to 
l)e  said  for  it.  It  is  objectionable  because  it  (1) 
violates  the  law  of  self -activity;  (2)  stifles  individual 
effort  and  individual  responsibility;  (3)  does  not  bring 
out  clear,  definite  answers  or  thinking;  and  (4)  leads 
to  confusion,  disorder,  and  chaotic  class  work.  There 
may  possibly  be  instances  in  which  concert  work 
may  be  used  advantageously,  but  as  a  rule  it  should 
be  avoided. 

The  Consecutive  Method. — The  consecutive  method 
of  asking  and  answering  in  the  recitation  means  be- 
ginning at  some  point,  the  head  of  the  class,  or  at  the 
name  beginning  with  A,  and  proceeding  in  some 
regular  order  back  to  the  point  of  starting.  In  pro- 
ceeding in  recitation  this  way  the  students  know 
pretty  well  when  the  "turn"  of  each  one  will  come. 
This  method,  like  the  preceding  one,  has  many  things 
against  it,  but  little  to  recommend  it.  It  is  objection- 
able because  it  leads  to  (1)  habits  of  inattention;  (2) 
disorder  and  disorganization  of  the  class;  (3) habits  of 
idleness;  and  (4)  bad  methods  of  study.  However 
good  a  student  may  be,  if,  when  he  has  answered  a 
question,  he  knows  to  a  certainty  that  he  will  not  be 
called  upon  again  for  some  time,  the  tendency  is  for 
him  to  relax  his  attention.  If  the  student  is  not  a 
,good  one,  the  tendency  in  this  kind  of  work  is  for  him 


220  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

to  become  worse,  and  since  he  is  not  called  upon  to- 
attend  closely  he  is  prone  to  do  something  else,  there- 
by causing  disorder  and  disorganization.  Idleness 
in  the  class  is  a  direct  result  of  inattention,  and  bad 
habits  of  study  result  from  the  student's  being  able 
to  prepare  just  those  points  in  the  lesson  which  he 
has  reckoned  will  come  to  him. 

Promiscuous  Method. — The  promiscuous  method 
of  asking  questions  and  receiving  answers  refers  to 
distributing  the  questions  and  receiving  answers 
from  students  promiscuously.  No  student  knows  to 
whom  the  answer  to  the  question  will  fall.  This 
method  unlike  the  two  preceding  has  much  to  be  said 
for  it  and  little  or  nothing  against  it.  It  is  desirable 
because  (1)  it  fosters  habits  of  attention  and  concen- 
tration; (2)  it  is  flexible  and  gives  the  teacher  the  best 
opportunities  for  meeting  the  needs  of  individual 
students;  (3)  it  fosters  habits  of  order  and  organiza- 
tion in  the  class  work;  and  (4)  it  tends  to  industrious 
habits,  and  right  methods  of  study.  By  the  use  of 
the  promiscuous  method  students  are  held  constantly 
to  attending  to  the  question  under  consideration,  to 
the  careful  preparation  of  the  lesson  as  a  whole,  and 
to  order  and  unity  in  the  class.  As  a  rule,  the  pro- 
miscuous method  is  certainly  the  best  for  class  work. 

Lecture  Method. — The  lecture  method  refers  U> 
teaching  by  means  of  talks,  or  lectures.  This  method, 
perhaps,  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  It  is 
certainly  not  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  school  work,  and 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  221 

probably  not  adapted  to  any  kind  of  school  work  if 
used  exclusively.  There  are,  however,  some  phases 
of  school  work  which  may  be  taught  profitably  by 
talks,  or  lectures.  To  elementary  school  work  the 
lecture  method  is  not  at  all  adapted,  and  but  very 
poorly  adapted  to  secondary  school  work.  In  the 
first  eight  years  of  the  child's  school  life  he  must  be 
taught  differently  than  by  this  method.  That  stays 
with  the  child  which  he  has  an  opportunity  to  see, 
hear,  and  think  about.  This,  however,  is  not  to  be 
construed  to  mean  that  oral  teaching  should  not 
be  done  in  primary  history,  primary  geography, 
nature  work,  etc.  If  the  lecture  method  has  any 
legitimate  place  in  school  work  it  is  in  the  college  and 
university.  However  it  may  seem  theoretically,  it 
remains  a  fact  that  those  things  which  are  digged  out 
by  the  student,  recited  upon  hi  the  class,  and  dis- 
cussed by  questions  and  answers  are  the  things  which 
in  the  end  stay  with  him  and  do  him  good.  Certainly 
the  lecture  method  in  the  average  teacher's  school 
work  is,  to  say  the  least,  to  be  used  sparingly,  and 
with  much  caution  when  used  at  all. 

The  Socratic  Method. — This  method  takes  its  name 
from  Socrates,  a  Greek  philosopher  and  teacher,  born 
469  B.  C.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  developing 
method.  It  proceeds  by  the  employment  of  subtle 
questions  to  lead  the  student  to  think  what  it  is  de- 
sired for  him  to  think  without  telling  him  anything. 
"The  Socratic  method,  more  or  less  perfectly  under- 


222  STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 

stood,  has  had  great  influence  upon  professional 
pedagogy.  In  many  schools  for  the  professional 
training  of  teachers,  and  in  many  schools  in  charge 
of  teachers  professionally  trained,  systematic  ques- 
tioning of  this  sort  is  looked  upon  as  ideal  teaching; 
and  there  is  no  lack  of  conscientious  endeavor  to 
prepare  for  use  in  recitation,  series  of  questions  which 
shall  lead  the  child's  mind  to  take  the  logical  steps 
which  given  occasion  requires.  One  who  doubts  the 
value  of  such  systematic  questioning  may  usually  be 
converted  by  hearing  a  single  typical  recitation  con- 
ducted by  a  master  of  the  art.  The  power  of  such  a 
recitation  to  touch,  move,  chasten  and  direct  the  soul 
is  so  evident,  that  if  Socrates  and  Plato  had  taught  us 
nothing  but  how  to  do  such  work  their  fame  as 
teachers  would  be  justified."  It  is  noteworthy  that 
the  "Socratic  Method"  is  diametrically  opposed  to 
the  "Lecture  Method." 

The  Laboratory  Method. — This  is  also  often  called 
the  "Scientific  Method,"  or  "Inductive  Method, "and 
it  means  a  procedure  in  which  the  student  is  lead  to 
investigate  and  think  for  himself.  It  is  opposed  to 
taking  things  on  mere  authority  without  investiga- 
tion, and  to  the  text-book  method.  It  proceeds  by 
leading  the  student  to  deal  with  the  actual  material  of 
study  rather  than  to  deal  with  what  some  one  has 
said  about  it.  In  botany,  studied  in  this  way,  the 
student  deals  with  plants;  in  zoology,  with  animals;  in 
grammar,  with  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences. 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  223 

This  method  has  much  to  recommend  it.  1.  It  fosters 
habits  of  free  inquiry  and  free  investigation.  2.  It 
is  the  mind's  natural  way  of  learning.  3.  It  makes 
the  student  self -directive  and  self-helpful.  4.  It 
fixes  with  the  student  right  methods  of  study.  5.  It 
gives  the  student  a  critical  attitude  of  mind.  All 
these  are  very  desirable  characteristics  for  a  student 
to  have. 

Comparison  of  Teacher's  and  PupiVs  Method. — 
These  two  methods  are  alike  as  follows:  1.  They 
are  both  spiritual  processes.  2.  The  mind  of  the 
learner  and  the  mind  of  the  teacher  in  general  go 
through  the  same  process  in  thinking  the  thing  to  be 
learned.  3.  Both  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  keep  in 
mind  to  some  extent  the  purpose  of  the  process  in  the 
teaching  act. 

These  two  methods  are  different  as  follows:  1. 
The  teacher,  in  addition  to  thinking  the  truths  to  be 
learned,  must  think  the  learner's  thinking  of  them. 
2.  The  teacher  must  think  out  the  means  or  devices 
to  be  used  in  leading  the  learner  to  think  the  desired 
points  of  truth.  3.  While  both  the  teacher  and  the 
pupil  keep  in  mind  the  purpose,  the  teacher  sees  it 
definitely,  or  should  do  so,  while  the  pupil  only  sees 
it  vaguely.  The  teacher's  method  thus  includes  more 
than  the  learner's. 

Two  Views  of  Method. — The  foregoing  study  sug- 
gests to  us  that  there  are  two  views  of  method.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  educational  writers  hold  these  twa 


224  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

•\ 

views,  as  considerable  confusion  prevails  because  of 
this  fact.  One  class  of  educators,  those  who  have 
studied  method  least,  mean  by  method  simply  the 
physical  process  in  the  act  of  teaching.  A  second 
class,  those  who  have  been  special  students  of  method, 
mean  by  method  the  triple  process  in  the  act  of  teach- 
ing. 

Comparison  of  the  Two  Views. — In  our  study  of 
method  we  may  call  these  two  views  respectively  the 
popular  view  and  the  special  view.  The  popular  view 
will  thus  designate  method  as  the  manipulation  of  ex- 
ternal means,  or  devices,  and  the  special  view  will 
designate  method  as  the  triple  process. 

Thinking  of  method  according  to  the  popular  view 
constantly  places  the  mind's  emphasis  upon  some- 
thing external  to  the  life  of  the  learner.  This  has  in 
the  past  led  to  much  that  was  bad  in  teaching  and  is 
still  doing  so.  The  teacher  loses  sight  thus  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  in  the  learner's  life  that  the  educating 
process  is  to  be  carried  on.  He  is  prone  to  make  the 
manipulating,  the  text-book,  or  some  petty  scheme 
of  teaching  an  end  instead  of  a  means.  Every  ques- 
tion that  arises  concerning  teaching  must  be  settled 
in  the  light  of  the  effect  upon  the  life  of  the  learner. 
The  ultimate  question  is,  How  does  it  affect  the  life  of 
the  learner?  The  process  in  which  the  mind  of  the 
learner  masters  the  new  point  of  knowledge  is 
the  point  of  prime  importance  in  the  teaching  act  and 
the  thing  always  to  be  emphasized  in  the  study  of  the 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  225 

act  of  teaching.  The  popular  view  of  method  leads 
to  almost  hopeless  confusion.  Everyone  holding  this 
view  who  happens  to  use  some  different  device,  or 
means,  in  teaching  calls  it  his  method  and  gives  it  a 
name.  Since  there  is  an  almost  infinite  number  of 
devices  which  may  be  used,  there  thus  arises  an  al- 
most infinite  number  of  methods,  which  no  teacher 
can  or  desires  to  keep  informed  upon.  This  leads  to 
a  hopelessly  chaotic  condition  of  things  in  the  study 
of  method. 

The  popular  view  of  method  has  lead  to  much  dis- 
paragement of  the  study  of  method  among  persons 
who  should  be  friendly  to  its  study.  These  are  often- 
times persons  who  are  very  good  thinkers,  but  who 
have  not  given  special  study  to  method.  It  is  a  com- 
mon remark  among  this  class  of  teachers  that  one 
may  study  method  in  a  subject  at  the  expense  of  a 
knowledge  of  that  subject.  The  depreciating  remarks 
made  about  method,  which  arise  from  the  popular 
view  of  method,  are  a  source  of  much  harm  to  the 
profession  of  teaching.  This  is  true,  because  many 
persons  who  would  otherwise  make  a  careful  study 
of  method  and  would  receive  the  benefit  that  must 
come  to  the  teacher  thereby,  are  kept  from  beginning 
the  study  by  this  disparaging  attitude  on  the  part  of 
some  teachers.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  there  is 
need  for  no  one  thing  among  teachers  more  than  an 
intensely  professional  spirit.  It  seems  strange  that 
some  teachers  take  pleasure  in  saying  depreciating 


226  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

things  about  method  work.  It  is,  however,  probably 
to  be  explained  from  a  misconception  of  method.  I 
have  never  yet  heard  the  first  person  speak  depre- 
ciatingly of  method,  who  had  been  a  student  of  the 
subject. 

The  special  view  may  be  proven  to  be  the  better 
view.  This  is  the  argument:  A  thing  is  good  ac- 
cordingly as  it  realizes  the  purpose  which  brought  it 
into  existence.  Method  as  a  subject  came  into  ex- 
istence to  supply  the  want  for  something,  the  study 
of  which  would  help  the  teacher  to  do  better  work  in 
his  daily  teaching.  Accordingly,  that  thing  whose 
study  helps  the  teacher  most  is  the  best.  It  has 
already  been  shown  that  the  study  of  method  as  a 
triple  process  is  more  helpful  to  the  teacher  than  the 
study  of  method  as  the  manner  of  manipulating  some 
external  means,  or  device.  Therefore,  the  special 
view  is  the  better  view  of  method. 

No  Danger  in  Too  Much  Study. — It  is  not  difficult 
to  see  that  there  is  no  danger  of  a  teacher's  devoting 
too  much  time  to  the  study  of  method  when  one  takes 
the  proper  view  of  method.  The  teacher  can  not 
study  the  process  through  which  the  mind  goes  in 
mastering  any  point  of  knowledge  until  he  has  the 
knowledge  himself.  For  instance,  the  teacher  can 
not  see  the  mental  steps  the  mind  of  the  learner  takes 
in  learning  the  definition  of  an  adjective  without 
knowing  the  definition  of  an  adjective  himself.  To 
know  the  method  in  teaching  the  definition  of  an 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  227 

adjective  is  to  know  two  things:  1.  The  definition  of 
an  adjective.  2.  The  process  the  mind  naturally 
employs  in  learning  the  definition  of  an  adjective. 
No  teacher  can  rationally  and  well  teach  the  adjective 
who  does  not  know  both. 

Further  Illustration. — In  the  teaching  of  history 
this  point  becomes  quite  evident.  The  teacher  who 
knows  method  in  history  knows  these  two  things:  1. 
The  events  of  mankind  in  their  relation  to  the  struggle 
of  the  race  for  higher  life.  That  is  to  say,  he  must 
know  history.  2.  The  natural  processes  of  the  mind 
in  learning  history.  No  teacher  can  teach  history  at 
all  without  a  knowledge  of  the  first,  and  it  is  equally 
clear  to  any  person  who  will  think,  that  no  one  can 
teach  history  well  without  a  knowledge  of  the  second. 

So  this  question  reduces  itself  to  the  following: 
It  is  not  possible  for  a  teacher  to  study  method  too 
much,  unless  it  is  possible  for  a  teacher  to  know 
too  much  about  his  subjects  and  to  know  too  well  the 
mind's  natural  process  in  learning  those  subjects. 

Factors  Determining  Method. — About  twenty  years 
ago  one  of  the  leading  educators  of  this  country  said 
' '  The  law  in  the  mind  and  the  thought  in  the  thing  studied 
determine  the  method."  This  statement  of  this  truth 
can  not  well  be  improved  upon.  It  shows  that  the 
two  following  things  are  factors  in  determining 
the  method  to  be  pursued  in  teaching  any  subject 
whatever: 

1.     The  laiv  in  the  mind. 


228  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

2.     The  thought  in  the  thing  studied. 

That  these  two  factors  are  the  ones  which  deter- 
mine every  rational  method  makes  the  above  state- 
ment a  universal  truth. 

The  Law  in  the  Mind. — The  law  in  the  mind  has 
reference  to  the  general  truths  of  mind — the  forms  of 
activity  common  to  minds. 

Holding  in  mind  that  method  is  the  triple  activity 
hi  the  process  of  teaching,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that 
this  process  must  be  largely  what  it  is  because  of 
what  the  mind  can  do;  that  is,  because  of  the  laws 
governing  mental  activity. 

Again,  the  method  would  be  different  in  teaching 
the  same  subject-matter  to  a  child  of  eight  and  to  an 
adult,  because  it  is  a  law  of  the  mind  that  the  mind  of 
the  child  of  eight  could  sense-perceive,  remember, 
and  imagine  accurately,  but  that  he  could  not  reason 
accurately,  while  the  adult  should  be  able  to  do  so. 

The  Thought  in  the  Thing.—  Each  thing  is  the 
embodiment  of  thought;  that  is,  each  thing  in  the  uni- 
verse is  capable  of  suggesting  a  thought  to  the  mind. 
"Evangeline,"  the  rose,  the  lily,  is  each  the  embodi- 
ment of  thought. 

Again  remembering  what  method  is,  it  can  read- 
ily be  seen  that  the  process  is  different  in  teaching 
different  things,  and  so  the  method  is  different. 

The  process  in  teaching  the  noun  as  to  definition 
and  in  teaching  "Maud  Muller"  as  to  interpretation 
is  widely  different,  because  of  the  difference  in  the 


THE  PROCESS  IN  THE  TEACHING  ACT, — METHOD.  229 

thought  embodied  in  them.  And  since  method  is 
the  triple  process  in  the  act  of  teaching,  the  method 
is  widely  different,  the  cause  of  the  difference  being 
the  difference  in  the  thought  in  the  two  things. 

Thus  these  two  things,  the  mind  of  the  learner, 
and  the  subject-matter,  determine  the  method. 

The  whole  study  of  general  method  should  em- 
phasize the  truth  that  the  essential  thing  in  teaching  is 
opening  up  the  ivay  for  the  realization  of  the  child's  in- 
herent possibilities. 

"Truth  is  within  ourselves;  it  takes  no  rise 
From  outward  things,  whate'er  you  may  believe. 
There  is  an  inmost  center  in  us  all, 
Where  truth  abides  in  fullness,  and  around, 
Wall  upon  wall,  the  gross  flesh  hems  it  in, 
*******      And  to  know 
Rather  consists  in  opening  out  a  way 
Whence  the  imprisoned  splendor  may  escape, 
Than  in  effecting  entry  for  a  light 
Supposed  to  be  without." 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    RECITATION. 

The  Nature  of  the  Recitation. — The  word,  recitation, 
is  of  Latin  origin  and  literally  means  a  reading  aloud. 
As  the  term  is  used  now  in  connection  with  school 
work  something  of  the  literal  meaning  may  be  found 
in  it.  But  there  is  more  in  the  recitation  as  thought 
of  now  than  the  mere  reading  or  speaking  aloud.  A 
written  recitation  might  be  conducted  in  which  the 
original  notion  of  the  recitation  is  scarcely  to  be  found 
at  all. 

The  recitation  is  the  school  process  in  which  the 
learner  rethinks  what  he  has  learned  in  previous 
study  and  communicates  this  to  the  teacher  and  his 
fellow  students.  This,  however,  is  not  all  there  is  in 
the  recitation,  but  constitutes  a  considerable  part  of 
the  process.  In  addition  to  the  student's  process 
of  rethinking  and  communicating  to  the  teacher,  and 
other  students,  what  he  has  previously  learned,  there 
are  in  the  recitation  the  suggestions,  tests,  directions, 
and  encouragement  by  the  teacher. 

The  recitation  is  the  crowning  process  of  school 
work.  It  is  in  the  recitation  more  than  in  any  other 
place  that  the  learner  is  stimulated  to  the  effort  of 


THE   RECITATION.  231 

learning.  Good  recitations  are  the  test  of  good  school 
work. 

Purposes  of  the  Recitation. — The  following  are  the 
purposes  of  the  recitation: 

1.  To  furnish  a  process  in  which  the  mind  of  the 
learner  and  the  mind  of  the  teacher  may  come  into 
living  touch  with  each  other. 

2.  To  test  the  learner  on  his  preparation  and 
understanding  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson. 

3.  To  supplement  the  knowledge  of  the  subject- 
matter  the  student  has  gained  in  his  preparation. 

4.  To  give  the  learner  the  habit  of  right  methods 
of  study. 

5.  To  approve,  encourage,  inspire,  and  stimulate 
the  learner  in  his  work. 

Vital  Touch  of  Learner's  and  Teacher's  Mind. — In 
order  that  instruction  may  be  most  effective  the  mind 
of  the  learner  must  come  under  the  influence  of  the 
mind  of  the  teacher  with  conditions  as  favorable  for 
learning  as  possible.  This  is  needed  that  in  the  act 
of  teaching  the  life  of  the  teacher  may  come  into 
closest  touch  with  the  life  of  the  pupil. 

That  the  conditions  may  be  the  most  favorable 
the  class  should  recite  in  a  room  separate  from  that 
in  which  the  school  is  accustomed  to  sit  and  study. 
Since  this  is  not  possible  in  so  many  schools,  the  next 
best  thing  is  to  have  the  pupils  to  occupy  a  position 
in  the  room  as  nearly  isolated  from  the  other  students 
as  possible.  Separate  recitation  rooms,  though,  are 


232*  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

always  the  best,  for  in  them  all  diverting  influences 
can  be  reduced  to  the  minimum,  and  the  conditions 
for  learning  be  best  maintained. 

Testing  on  the  Preparation  of  the  Lesson. — Good 
teaching  requires  that  some  definite  thing  be  de- 
manded daily  of  the  learner.  And  the  requirement 
of  tests  on  the  preparation  and  understanding  of  what 
is  demanded  is  imperative.  The  responsibility  of 
getting  up  before  the  class  and  stating  to  the  class 
and  the  teacher  what  he  has  learned  is  a  constant 
spur  to  the  student  in  his  work.  Negligence  and 
looseness  in  study  always  result  from  the  assignment 
of  lessons  upon  which  students  never  recite.  There 
is  no  surer  way  to  induce  bad  habits  of  study  than  to 
assign  lessons  and  then  not  test  students  as  to  their 
preparation  and  understanding  of  these  lessons.  And 
the  tendency  is  in  this  direction,  even  though  one  has 
the  best  students  to  be  found.  If  students  are  not 
good  there  is  nothing  in  such  work  to  make  them 
better,  on  the  other  hand  they  become  worse.  The 
responsibility  of  proper  preparation  is  brought  home 
to  the  student  in  no  other  way  so  well  as  in  the  class 
room  at  recitation.  Every  one  knows  how  prone  he 
is  to  neglect  work  which  he  has  planned  to  do  because 
of  a  lack  of  a  definite  responsibility.  The  tests  in  the 
recitation  fix  and  maintain  a  definite  responsibility. 

The  testing  to  be  most  helpful  must  be  accurate, 
critical,  and  just.  Students  are  often  deceived  in 
thinking  they  have  prepared  well  their  lessons  when 


THE    RECITATION. 


they  have  not,  because  the  testing  is  poorly  done  in 
the  recitation.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  student 
makes  a  recitation  which  is  worth  nearly  nothing, 
but  the  teacher  by  smoothing  it  over  and  patching  it 
up  makes  the  student  think  he  has  done  something 
creditable.  The  student  is  thus  misled  and  is  per- 
fectly willing  for  the  teacher  to  do  the  same  thing 
again.  If  a  student  neglects  to  prepare  his  lesson, 
he  should  be  brought  face  to  face  with  his  ignorance 
which  might  have  been  removed. 

Supplementing  a  Knoivledge  of  the  Lesson.  —  It  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  the  student  will  at  all  times 
completely  master  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson. 
Points  more  or  less  vague  to  the  learner  or  of  which 
he  has  obtained  a  wrong  idea  will  often  become  clear 
and  correct  to  him  by  recitations  of  other  students 
and  the  illustrations  of  the  teacher.  And  many  times 
points  which  the  student  has  not  been  able  to  work 
out  will  be  cleared  up  to  him  upon  the  teacher's  asking 
him  questions  which  lead  to  their  solution.  And 
again  there  are  points  which  the  student  can  get  from 
no  other  source  than  from  the  teacher.  These  the 
teacher  may  give  directly  to  the  student  and  save 
time  and  guessing  on  his  part. 

It  has  been  stated  as  a  principle  of  pedagogy  that 
the  teacher  should  never  tell  a  student  anything  ivhich  he 
can  find  out  for  himself.  This  statement  emphasizes 
an  important  pedagogical  truth,  no  doubt,  for  the 
tendency  certainly  is  among  teachers  to  tell  students 


234  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

many  things  which  they  should  be  led  to  work  out 
for  themselves,  as  the  easiest  way  out  of  it,  when  the 
student  fails  to  respond  properly  to  a  question.  But 
to  follow  the  principle  literally  would  also  lead  to 
.grave  errors.  For  instance,  if  a  child  were  standing 
by  the  fire  and  without  his  knowledge  his  clothes 
should  catch  fire,  he  would  find  it  out  without  being 
told  sooner  or  later.  But  no  one  would  think  of  wait- 
ing for  him  to  find  it  out  so. 

One  purpose  of  the  recitation  certainly  is  to  sup- 
plement the  knowledge  the  student  gets  from  his 
preparation  of  the  lesson. 

Giving  an  Insight  into  Right  Methods  of  Study. — It 
often  happens  that  students  are  willing  to  prepare 
their  lessons,  but  that  they  do  not  know  how  to  study. 
The  teacher  has  opportunity  in  the  recitation  in  two 
ways  to  show  the  student  how  to  study: 

1.  He  can  show  the  student  how  to  study  by  his 
requirements  in  the  daily  work  of  the  recitation.     If 
the  student  is  constantly  held  accurately  to  the  care- 
ful preparation  of  each  point  assigned,  he  will  soon 
come  to  understand  what  it  means  to  prepare  a  lesson; 
and  from  what  is  worked  out  on  the  separate  points, 
he  will  see  what  is  to  be  done  with  each  point  by  way 
of  preparation. 

2.  In  the  recitation  from  time  to  time  the  teacher 
may  take  the  points  one  by  one  and  show  the  students 
just  how  to  proceed  in  their  preparation.    This  the 
teacher   must   do  occasionally,    if  he   would   have 


THE    RECITATION.  235 

his  students  use  their  time  and  energy  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Approving,  Encouraging,  Inspiring,  and  Stimulat- 
ing.— Young  people  and  old,  too,  are  oftentimes 
gladdened  by  a  word  of  approval.  The  teacher's  op- 
portunity for  approving  of  that  worthy  of  approval, 
and  disapproving  of  that  not  worthy  of  approval  is  a 
means  in  his  hands  of  working  much  good.  Teachers 
are  too  ready  to  disapprove  of  the  bad  and  to  let  the 
meritorious  pass  by  as  if  unnoticed.  Every  child  is 
capable  of  something  worthy,  and  should  be  made  to 
feel  so.  Just  approval  in  the  recitation  is  a  perfectly 
legitimate  incentive,  and  may  be  used  to  do  much 
good  by  the  careful,  sympathetic  teacher. 

Pupils  frequently  have  spells  of  despondency  and 
discouragement  in  their  school  work.  This  comes 
about  from  extravagant  ideas  of  what  a  pupil  should 
accomplish,  or  a  somewhat  mistaken  idea  of  native 
ability,  etc.  In  the  recitation  the  teacher  has  an 
opportunity  to  dispel  the  despondency  and  encourage 
by  placing  before  the  students  healthful  ideals  of 
student  life. 

The  teacher  by  taking  the  soul's  hunger  at  its 
worth  and  so  teaching  as  to  stimulate  and  quicken  it 
has  an  opportunity  to  inspire  the  learner  to  a  life  of 
search  for  truth  and  righteousness.  And  the  teacher 
who  can  so  teach  that  his  pupils  will  be  inspired  to 
study  his  subjects  after  leaving  school,  in  the  pursuit 
of  wisdom  and  virtue,  is  a  most  successful  teacher. 


236  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

The  Law  of  the  Recitation. — The  law  of  the  reci- 
tation is  the  same  as  the  law  of  the  school  as  a  whole; 
that  is,  the  law  of  unity.  Without  unity  between  the 
teacher  and  pupils  the  recitation  could  not  exist,  but 
it  often  actually  exists  with  various  degrees  of  unity. 
When  the  minds  of  all  the  students  are  following  the 
mind  of  the  teacher  as  the  recitation  progresses  there 
is  ideal  unity.  To  approach  this  condition  of  things 
is  always  to  be  sought;  and,  other  things  equal,  the 
recitation  will  be  successful  in  the  degree  to  which 
this  is  attained.  Either  the  pupils  or  the  teacher  may 
break  the  law  of  unity  in  the  recitation. 

The  student  may  break  it  by  failing  to  give  atten- 
tion when  he  ought  to  do  so.  Whispering  breaks  the 
unity  always,  and  while  not  in  itself  necessarily 
wrong,  is  a  positive  sin  when  engaged  in  during  the 
recitation.  It  is  to  be  deplored  that  there  is  a  teacher 
in  the  land  who  can  not  see  the  question  of  whispering 
in  school  in  its  true  light,  and  who  does  not  set  the 
stamp  of  disapproval  upon  it.  It  is  absolutely  inde- 
fensible as  a  practice.  There  are  many  other  ways 
of  breaking  the  unity  of  the  recitation. 

The  teacher  may  break  the  unity  by  conducting 
the  recitation  in  such  a  way  that  there  can  not  by  any 
possibility  be  unity,  as  indicated  by  the  following 
quotation: 

"Here  is  a  picture  taken  from  real  life:  School- 
room of  two  grades  (seventh  and  eighth),  of  about 
twenty  pupils  each.  Good  teacher,  as  the  world  goes; 


THE   RECITATION.  237 

lesson  in  denominate  numbers  by  the  seventh  grade. 
Teacher  directs  one  boy  to  pass  to  the  board  and 
solve  the  first  problem;  another  the  second;  and  so  on 
till  the  ten  problems  are  used.  Then,  commencing 
again  with  the  first  problem,  re-assigns  the  ten  prob- 
lems severally  to  the  next  ten  pupils.  A  few  pupils 
remain  without  work,  and  these  are  given  selected 
problems  to  work  at  the  desk,  the  board  all  being 
occupied.  The  teacher  now  steps  back  to  talk  to  the 
visitor  while  waiting  developments.  Things  always 
develop  rapidly  under  such  circumstances;  and  soon 
the  teacher  is  needed  by  a  girl  working  at  her  desk, 
where  teacher  and  pupil  discuss  the  problem.  Note 
here  that  it  is  all  right  for  teacher  and  pupil  to  talk 
during  the  recitation,  because  the  teacher  makes  the 
rules:  two  pupils  must  not  talk;  except  to  help  each 
other,  as  they  say.  And  this  they  soon  do,  for  the 
bright  girl  points  the  way  to  the  dull  boy.  The  first 
boy  has  done  his  sum;  and,  rather  than  waste  time, 
punches  the  fire,  which  is  already  too  hot.  Another 
bright  lad  cultivates  the  fantasy  and  freehand  draw- 
ing; while  some  laggards  toil  on,  with  and  without 
help,  hopeless,  and  despairing  of  victory  before  time 
is  called.  The  first  boy  explains  to  those  who  have 
done  their  work,  while  others  toil  on.  Fill  out  the 
picture  at  your  leisure.  In  all  it  was  a  splendid  dis- 
play of  self -activity,  free  thought  and  free  speech. " 

The  law  of  unity  in  the  recitation  demands  short 
recitation  periods.     When  the  minds  of  the  pupils 


238  STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 

become  fatigued  to  any  great  extent,  it  is  impossible 
to  maintain  the  unity.  Forty  minutes  is  probably 
long  enough  for  any  recitation  period  and  in  the  case 
of  young  students  it  should,  of  course,  be  much  less, 
its  length  depending  upon  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to 
give  sustained  concentrated  attention. 

The  Teaclier's  Preparation  for  the  Recitation.— No 
teacher  can  do  his  best  work  without  making  daily 
preparation  for  his  recitations.  This  preparation  by 
the  teacher  is  called  lesson  planning.  Thus  lesson 
planning  means  the  process,  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  of  working  through  each  lesson  a  short  time 
before  teaching  it  with  the  view  of  teaching  it  to  some 
particular  class.  In  short,  it  is  the  teacher's  im- 
mediate preparation  for  teaching  each  lesson.  Daily 
lesson  planning  is  thus  an  absolute  necessity  to  the 
teacher  who  will  do  the  best  teaching  of  which  he  is 
capable.  No  teacher,  then,  should  ever  go  before  his 
class  to  teach  a  lesson  without  having  planned  it  for 
this  particular  recitation. 

This  may  seem  too  much  of  a  requirement  to 
some  teachers,  since  it  will  of  a  necessity  demand 
many  sacrifices  of  them.  To  those  who  object  on  this 
ground,  it  may  be  said  that  the  most  successful 
school  work  demands  just  this  sacrifice  and  more,  and 
that  those  who  are  unwilling  to  give  it  should  relin- 
quish their  claims  as  successful  teachers  to  those 
who  are  willing.  Also,  according  to  the  law  of  the 
survival  of  the  fittest  these  very  teachers  in  the  strug- 


THE   RECITATION. 


gle  for  excellency  will  be  pushed  to  the  rear  that  their- 
places  may  be  occupied  by  those  more  worthy. 

And  daily  preparation  will  not  be  found  to  de- 
mand so  much  sacrifice  as  it  at  first  appears.  The 
teacher  will  grow  in  skill  in  lesson  planning  in  a  short- 
time  to  such  an  extent  that  he  will  find  that  he  can 
plan  each  lesson  in  a  very  few  minutes.  This  of 
course  presumes  that  he  has  a  fair  degree  of  scholar- 
ship in  the  subjects  which  he  teaches. 

No  better  means  exists  to  arouse  interest  and 
maintain  it  in  the  class  than  that  of  planning  each 
lesson.  It  works  out  as  follows:  the  teacher  having 
planned  his  lesson,  as  a  general  plans  a  battle,  comes 
to  the  recitation  full  of  expectation  and  interest  to  see 
if  all  things  will  work  out  as  they  were  thought  in  the 
planning.  The  pupils,  according  to  the  law  of  sym- 
pathy, catch  the  interest  and  expectation  from  the 
teacher,  and  in  turn  manifest  an  intense  interest. 
This  is  but  one,  however,  of  the  many  benefits  which 
come  to  the  teacher  from  lesson  planning. 

But  the  teacher's  intentions  may  be  excellent, 
and  yet  he  may  not  succeed  well  because  he  has  no 
systematic  way  of  planning  lessons.  In  other  words- 
the  teacher  may  see  the  necessity  of  lesson  planning, 
but  may  not  know  how  to  plan  a  lesson.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  under  the  head  of  the  *  '  Teacher's 
Method"  it  has  been  shown  that  in  teaching  a  lesson 
the  teacher  must  think  through  (l)the  subject-matter- 
(2)  the  purpose;  (3)  the  basis;  (4)  the  steps;  and  (5)  the 


240  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

devices.  Systematic  lesson  planning  consists  in 
thinking  out  as  accurately  as  possible  just  these  five 
things  before  attempting  to  teach  a  lesson. 

Some  teachers  say  one  can  depend  upon  the  in- 
spiration of  the  moment  in  teaching  and  that  lesson 
planning  is  not  necessary.  But  the  worst  failures  as 
teachers  are  those  who  attempt  to  depend  upon  the 
inspiration  of  the  moment  and  find  that  the  moment 
comes  and  goes  without  the  inspiration.  Inspiration 
is  not  a  thing  so  easily  got  as  to  come  along  to  help 
out  the  teacher  who  has  not  prepared  himself  for  his 
recitation.  Inspiration  results  from  properly  pre- 
paring one's  self  for  his  class  work. 

Manner  of  Conducting  the  Recitation. — The  manner 
of  conducting  the  recitation  is  a  point  of  sufficient 
importance  to  repay  careful  study,  for  upon  it  de- 
pends to  a  considerable  degree  the  success  of  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  who  has  a  mild,  pleasant  way 
of  leading  his  students  in  recitation  inspires  them 
with  confidence,  respect  and  love;  while  the  loud, 
ooisterous,  explosive  teacher  fails  in  securing  these 
-very  necessary  attitudes  of  his  pupil's  minds. 

Recitations  should  be  both  oral  and  written.  The 
oral  should  doubtless  predominate,  but  they  should 
be  varied  occasionally  with  written  recitations.  This 
is  because  the  pupils  will  be  called  upon  in  life  both 
in  and  out  of  school  work  to  communicate  their 
thought  and  feeling  in  both  oral  and  written  dis- 
course. To  know  is  good,  but  it  is  not  entirely  suf- 


THE   RECITATION.  241 

ficient.  It  was  said  a  long  time  ago  that  he  who  does 
not  know  is  an  ignoramus,  and  that  he  who  knows, 
but  can  not  communicate  what  he  knows  and  feels  is 
a  dumb  statue. 

All  of  the  following  ways  of  manipulating  ques- 
tions and  answers  have  been  used  in  conducting  the 
recitation,  and  have  been  called  methods  of  conducting 
it:  1.  The  concert  method.  2.  The  consecutive 
method.  3.  The  promiscuous  method.  4.  The  lec- 
ture method.  5.  The  Socratic  method. 

The  various  so  called  methods  of  conducting  the 
recitation  have  already  been  studied  (See  page  218), 
and  their  merits  and  demerits  pointed  out.  So  while 
they  should  be  rethought,  they  will  not  be  rediscussed 
here. 

Assignments. — The  assignment  is  a  proper  topic  of 
study  in  connection  with  the  recitation,  for  it  is  the 
teacher's  most  effective  means  of  stimulating  the 
students  to  properly  prepare  for  the  recitation. 
There  is  no  other  device  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher 
that  may  be  used  so  effectively  as  assignments.  Clear, 
definite,  logical  assignments  bring  clear,  definite, 
logical  thinking  in  the  recitation.  On  the  other  hand 
bad,  indefinite  assignments  bring  unsatisfactory 
recitations  and  lead  to  bad  habits  of  thinking.  As  a 
rule  a  teacher  will  get  just  about  as  good  recitations 
as  are  good  his  assignments.  The  teacher  by  skillful 
assignments  can  lead  his  pupils  to  pursue  almost  any 
desired  line  of  thinking. 


242  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

Every  assignment  in  any  subject  should  place 
before  the  class  a  definite  problem  for  solution,  and 
it  must  be  stated  in  such  a  way  that  the  learner  will 
see  what  is  required  of  him;  and  it  must  suggest  the 
general  plan  to  be  pursued  in  solving  the  problem. 
An  assignment  might  be  bad  in  any  of  these  three 
ways. 

Many  of  us  can  remember  when  the  teacher  said 
.as  the  assignment,  " Take  the  next  lesson."  And  it 
is  also  easily  remembered  that  we  frequently  did  not 
know  how  to  take  it,  when  to  take  it,  nor  where  to 
take  it,  and  that  we  were  little  better  off  after  taking 
than  before  taking. 

The  assignment  is  a  most  powerful  means  in  the 
hands  of  the  conscientious  teacher  for  doing  his  stu- 
dents lasting  good. 

Common  Errors  in  Conducting  the  Recitation. — The 
following  are  some  of  the  most  prevalent  errors  which 
teachers  are  prone  to  fall  into  and  which  they  should 
studiously  avoid:  1.  Giving  assignments  not  suf- 
ficiently definite.  2.  Permitting  students  to  wander 
from  the  question.  3.  Repeating  questions  before 
giving  students  time  to  answer.  4.  Repeating  the 
answer.  5.  Calling  on  the  student  before  asking 
the  question.  6.  Talking  too  much.  7.  Calling  too 
much  upon  the  brighter  students  for  recitation. 

Indefinite  assignments  were  studied  in  the  pre- 
ceding topic  and  nothing  further  is  necessary  here 
unless  it  is  to  emphasize  what  was  said  there.  The 


THE   RECITATION.  248 

importance  of  definite,  logical  assignments  in  teach- 
ing, however,  can  not  be  well  overestimated. 

To  have  the  student  answer  just  the  question 
asked  and  stop  then,  teaches  him  to  talk  to  the  point 
and  stop  when  he  has  finished  it.  But  to  talk  to  the 
point  and  stop  when  one  has  reached  it  is  the  charac- 
teristic of  a  well  trained  mind.  Other  things  equal, 
that  teacher  who  holds  the  students  to  just  the 
question  asked  does  his  students  by  far  the  most 
good.  And  that  student  who  answers  just  the  ques- 
tion asked  is  as  a  rule  the  best  thinker. 

The  habit  of  repeating  the  question  before  giving 
students  time  to  answer  fosters  habits  of  inattention, 
and  leads  to  bad  habits  of  study.  The  student  does 
not  feel  the  necessity  of  giving  concentrated  habits  of 
attention  since  he  has  a  right  to  expect  the  teacher  to 
repeat  the  question.  Also,  the  tendency  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  is  to  make  the  answer  to  the  question  a 
little  easier  each  time  he  asks  it,  and  this  leads  to 
poor  preparation  and  bad  habits  of  study. 

There  seems  to  be  an  almost  incontrollable  habit 
among  teachers  to  repeat  the  answer  to  a  question 
immediately  when  the  student  has  given  it.  It  is  in 
itself  not  only  unnecessary,  but  positively  harmful. 
It  tends  to  habits  of  inattention  on  the  part  of  the 
students  in  the  class  who  are  not  reciting.  Why  need 
they  pay  respectful  attention  to  the  student  who  is 
reciting,  if  the  teacher  will  repeat  the  answer  once, 
twice,  or  often  three  times? 


244  STUDIES  IN  PEDAGOGY. 

By  calling  on  the  student  before  asking  the  ques- 
tion, opportunity  is  afforded  the  other  students  in  the 
class  to  relax  their  attention.  If  the  teacher  asks  the 
question,  hesitates  momentarily,  then  calls  OH  some 
one  for  the  answer,  the  attention  of  the  whole  class 
will  be  better  held;  for  no  one  knows  but  that  he  will 
be  called  on  to  recite. 

Talking  too  much  is  perhaps  the  most  general 
of  all  the  common  errors  in  conducting  a  recitation. 
Many  teachers  literally  talk  their  students  to  sleep 
and  some  almost  talk  their  students  to  death.  Too 
much  talking  kills  interest;  violates  the  students'  self  - 
activity;  fosters  bad  habits  of  study;  stifles  individual 
endeavor,  and  robs  the  student  of  the  pleasure  of  his 
own  effort. 

Teachers  have  to  watch  themselves  to  avoid  falling 
into  the  habit  of  calling  too  much  on  the  brighter 
students.  It  is  not  just  to  the  weaker  ones  who 
usually  need  the  opportunity  of  reciting  more  than 
their  more  fortunate  companions. 


INDEX. 


Activities  of  the  mind,  74. 
Aim  in  life,  31. 

Relation  of  these  aims,  32. 
All  knowing  indirect,  76. 
Apperception,  69. 
Aptitude,  Natural,  173. 
Approving,  235. 
Assignments,  241. 
Association,  97. 

Laws  of,  98. 
Attention,  67. 

Classes  of,  68. 
Attribute,  63. 

Classes  of,  63. 

of  mind,  63. 
Basis,  215. 
Beginning  point,  13. 
Behavior,  185. 

Child  Study  and  curriculum, 
145. 

Cleanliness,  56. 
Clothing,  43. 
Concept,  105. 

Method  of  forming,  105. 

Aspects  of,  107. 
Conception,  104. 

Logical  steps  in,  106. 
Conduct,  185. 
Consecutive  method,  219. 
Consciousness,  65. 

Function  of,  66. 


Comparison  of  teacher's  and 
pupil's  method,  223. 
Complete  living,  25. 
Curriculum,  122. 
Meaning  of,  122. 
Origin  of,  123. 
Growth  of,  125. 
Enriching  the,  127. 
A  rational,  129. 
Test  of,  129. 

First  step  in  applying,  129. 
Order  of  importance  of 

these  lines,  130. 
Second  step  in  applying, 
132. 
Changes  in  suggested  by 

child  study,  146. 
Daily  preparation,  169,  238. 
Definition,  108. 
Laws  of,  110. 

Devices,  217.  [tions,  17. 

Differentiation     of      institu- 
in  the  school,  19.   [ing,  134. 
Disciplinary  value  of  learn- 
Discriminating  and  unifying, 

75. 

Diverting  influences,  194. 
Duties  as  a  citizen,  141. 

as  a  teacher,  149. 
Education 
What  main  aim  is  not,  33. 


246 


STUDIES  IN    PEDAGOGY. 


Primary  aim  of,  33. 

Purpose  of,  25-37,  128. 
Knowledge  of,  166. 

Relational  order  of,  131. 
Elements  of  the  school,  21. 
Encouraging,  235. 
Errors    in    conducting    reci- 
tation, 242. 

Feeling,  function  of,  76. 
Greek  and  Latin,  144. 
Governing,  149. 
Government,  176. 

Kinds  of  school,  176. 

Main  line  of  school,  184. 
Hate,  79.  [30. 

Harmony  of  the  four  views, 
Habits  of  activity,  157. 
Health 

Misfortune  of  bad,  38. 

Good,  173. 
Hearing,  59. 
Hints  from  nature,  35. 
Honesty,  155. 
Imagination,  101. 

Advance  over  memory,  102. 

Classes  of,  103.  [30. 

Importance  of  the  right  view, 
Incentives,  198. 

Natural,  199. 

Artificial,  199. 
Indifference,  79. 
Inspiring,  235. 
Interest,  68. 
Intuition,  117. 
Iterativeness,  73. 
Judgment,  110. 

Aspects  of,  112. 


Justness,  156. 
Knowing,  74. 

Development  of,  84. 
Stages  in,  85. 
Basis  of,  85. 
Stages  of 

Distinguishing  element  in 
the,  117. 

Advance  in  the,  118. 
Knowledge    giving    value  of 
learning,  134 
Knowledge 
Most  valuable,  145. 
of  laws  of  life,  161. 
of  methods,  167. 
of    purpose    of    education, 
166. 

Law,  23. 

Law,  Fundamental,  178. 
Source  of  the,  179 
Aspects  of,  180. 
Law  of  the  recitation,  236. 
Law  in  the  mind,  228. 
Laboratory  method,  222. 
Learner's  method,  209,  210. 
Learning 
Value  of,  133. 

Disciplinary  and  knowledge 
giving  value,  134. 
Lecture  method,  220. 
Lighting,  51. 
Love,  79. 

of  occupation,  171. 
Magnetism,  Personal,  174. 
Management  of  school,  176. 
Importance  of,  176. 
Kinds  of,  176. 


INDEX . 


247 


Mastery  of  circumstances,  174. 
Memory,  92. 

Classes  of,  94. 

Law  of,  97. 
Method,  207. 

Nature  of,  208. 

Subject-matter  of,  208. 

Definition  of,  209. 

Classes  of,  209. 

Learner's,  209,  210. 

Teacher's,  211. 

As  a  physical  process,  218 

Comparison  of  teacher's 

and  pupil's,  223- 

Two  views  of,  223. 

Factors  determining,  227. 
Methods  of  study,  giving  in- 
sight into,  234. 
Moral  character,  28,  153. 
Motives,  Pure,  197. 
Myopia 

Causes  of,  52. 

Undesirability  of,  53. 

Rules  for  prevention  of,  53. 
Object  method,  218. 
Order  of  importance  of  these 
lines,  130. 
Percept,  92. 

Physical  nature  of  the  child, 

38. 

Power  of  sentiment,  183. 
Practice  in  the  art  of  teach- 
ing, 168. 
Preparation 

Professional,  160. 

Daily,  169,  238. 

Testing  on,  232. 


Problem,  The,  25. 
Processes  in  teaching  act,  207. 
Promiscuous  method,  220. 
Punishments,  School,  203. 

Corporal,  255. 
Purpose,  214. 

of  education,  33,  25,  128. 

of  the  recitation,  231. 

of  the  school,  25. 
Rational  freedom,  27. 
Rearing  of  a  family,  139. 
Reasoning,  113. 

Classes  of,  113. 

Implicit  and  explicit,  114. 

Inductive  and  deductive, 

114. 
Recitation 

Nature  of,  230. 

Purpose  of,  231. 

Manner  of  conducting,  240. 

Common  errors  in  conduct- 
ing, 242. 
Rhythm,  73. 

Right  and  wrong,  knowledge 
of,  154. 

Right  ideas  of  life,  198. 
Rules,  179. 
School 

Nature  of,  13. 

Origin  of,  16. 

Differentiation  in,  19. 

Elements  of,  21. 

Purpose  of,  25. 
School  an  organization,  177. 
School  government,  176. 
Schoolroom,  Purpose  of,  190. 

Presence  of  learner,  190. 


248 


STUDIES  IN   PEDAGOGY. 


Comfort  of  teacher  and  pu- 
pils, 191. 

Conditions,  46. 
Scholarship,  159. 
Seating,  65. 
Seeing,  60. 
Self-control,  158. 
Self-activity,  71. 
Self-preservation 

Direct,  135. 

Indirect,  137. 

Senses  and  sense  organs,  57. 
Sensation 

Characteristics  of,  87. 

Classes  of,  87. 

Aspects  of,  57. 

Comparison  of  general  and 
special,  89. 
Sense-perception,  90. 

Classes  of,  91. 

Object  of,  91. 
Sentiment,  Power  of,  183. 
Sight,  195. 

Social  influences,  201. 
Socratic  method,  221. 
Source  of  the  law,  179. 
Spending  leisure  time,  143. 
Steps,  216. 

in  applying  test,  129,  132. 
Stimulating,  235. 
Study,  No  danger  of  too 

much,  226. 

Student  habits,  Energetic,  169. 
Subject-matter,  212. 

of  method,  208. 

General  statement  of,  213. 
Supplementing  a  knowledge 


of  lesson,  233. 
Syllogism,  115. 
Sympathy  with  children,  171. 
Systematization,  116. 
Teacher 

Importance  of,  149. 
Duties  of,  149. 
Positive,  150. 
Negative,  151. 
Characteristics  of,  152. 
Necessary,  152. 
Desirable,  172. 
Teacher's  method,  211. 
Teaching,  150. 
Teaching  act,  207. 

Processes  in,  207. 
Temperature,  49. 
Test  of  curriculum,  129. 
Testing  on  preparation  of 

lesson,  232. 

Things  men  are  employed  in, 
138. 

Thought  in  the  thing,  228. 
Thoughts  of  teachers,  163. 
Thoughts  of  thinkers,  164. 
Touch,  194. 
of  teacher's  and  learner's 

mind,  231. 
Truthfulness,  154. 
Unity,  23,  178. 
between  teacher  and  learner, 
185,  189. 

between  learner's  ideal  and 
real  self,  186,  197. 
in  the  organization  as  a 

whole,  181. 
Broken,  202. 


INDEX. 


249 


Restoration  of,  203. 
Fundamental  law,  178. 

Source  of,  179. 

Aspects  of,  180. 


teacher's  mind,  231. 
Will 

Functions  of,  83. 
Study  of,  83. 


Unifying  and  discriminating,      Willing,  80. 

75.      Wise  and  virtuous  men  and 


Vital  touch  of  learner's  and 


women,  29. 


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